forgetting and remembering

forgetting

• A failure to retrieve previously stored information.

• A failure to use information as it is required (Fletcher & Garton, 2018, p.27).

• Forgetting means that information is inaccessible at the time of recall.

• The information may still be stored in memory but is not accessible when needed (Grivas & Letch, 2013, p.312).

types of forgetting

• Forgetting may occur due to:

  1. The right retrieval cue or prompt is not used (retrieval failure).

  2. Interference from competing information (interference theory).

  3. Underlying motivation to not remember (motivated forgetting).

  4. Memory fading through disuse over time (decay theory).

retrieval failure

• Proposed by Endel Tulving.

• Suggests forgetting occurs when the correct cues to retrieve information are not used or available.

• Explains forgetting as an inability to retrieve material from long-term memory (LTM) due to missing cues.

• RFT is related to the ‘mental blank’ phenomenon:

  • Example: Trying to recall an answer during an exam versus discussing it afterward.

• The amount of information retrievable from LTM depends on the type of cue used.

• If the cue is not right, forgetting is likely, even if the memory is available.

• Tip of the Tongue (TOT) Phenomenon:

  • Represents a partial retrieval process.

  • Example: Searching for cues to remember names before being seen.

retrieval cues

• Any stimulus (e.g., a prompt or cue) that helps locate and recover information stored in memory.

• Example: Walking into a kitchen and forgetting why, then seeing a magazine image of crisps that reminds you.

types of retrieval cues

• Context-dependent cues: The environment matches the retrieval environment.

• Emotional/state-dependent cues: The emotional state matches the state during retrieval.

• Direct cues: Being asked a question.

• Indirect cues: Smelling a familiar scent, seeing a photo, or physical objects.

retrieval failure limitations

• Does not explain forgetting due to:

  • Anxiety-laden memories.

  • Disrupted memories from brain trauma or neurodegenerative diseases (e.g., Alzheimer’s).

  • Memories interfering with one another.

• Does not account for ineffective encoding during memory formation, meaning the information was never stored in LTM.

inteferance

• Proposes that forgetting occurs because other memories interfere with retrieval, especially if they are similar.

• Explains difficulties in retrieving information due to previously (proactive interference) or subsequently (retroactive interference) learned material.

proactive inteferance

• When previously learned information interferes with remembering new information.

• The prefix ‘pro’ means forwards; older information moves forward to interfere with newer information.

retroactive inteference

• When new information interferes with the ability to remember old information.

• The prefix ‘retro’ means backwards; new information interferes with retrieving older information stored in memory.

motivated forgetting

• Definition: Forgetting that arises from a strong motive or desire to forget, often due to disturbing or upsetting experiences.

repression

• Definition: Unconsciously blocking a memory from entering conscious awareness.

• Mechanism:

  • Based on Freudian self-protection; people prevent painful memories from surfacing.

  • Repressed memories are not lost but are hard to access.

• Characteristics:

  • Can signal existence in dreams or through physical reactions (e.g., blushing).

  • Can be accessed through hypnosis, though accuracy may vary.

suppression

• Definition: Deliberately trying to keep an event out of conscious awareness.

• Characteristics:

  • The person is aware of the experience but chooses not to think about it.

  • Research (Anderson et al., 2003) shows that actively trying not to think about something can reduce memory recall.

decay theory

• Definition: Forgetting occurs as the neural representation of a memory fades through disuse over time.

• Analogy: Similar to the fading of a photograph or erosion of a tombstone inscription.

• Key Points:

  • Time alone does not cause forgetting; it may contribute to forgetting in sensory memory and STM/WM.

  • Many memories can be recalled even after long periods without thought.

decay theory - retrieval cues

• The ability to access memories is aided by appropriate retrieval cues.

• Forgetting does not solely occur due to fading memory traces but also due to interference or inappropriate retrieval cues.

remembering - memory measurement

• Memory Measurement:

  • Recall (free, serial, and cued), recognition, and relearning are methods to measure memory retention.

  • The amount of information retrievable depends on the type of question or cue presented.

memory retrieval methods

1. Recall: Retrieving information without cues.

2. Recognition: Identifying previously learned information from options.

3. Relearning: Learning information again to measure retention.

recall

• Recall requires retrieving stored information with minimal cues.

• It reproduces information stored in memory, bringing it into conscious awareness.

• If a person cannot recall information, it doesn't mean it's not in memory; a retrieval cue might help.

types of recall

1. Free Recall:

   • Definition: Recalling as much information in any order, without specific cues.

   • Example: Recalling the last three POTUSs in any order.

2. Serial Recall:

   • Definition: Recalling information in the order it was learned/presented.

   • Example: Recalling the last three POTUSs in the order they were in office.

3. Cued Recall:

   • Definition: Recalling information using prompts/cues.

   • Example: "Name the last three POTUSs. Their initials are JB, BO, and DT."

role of recognition

• Recognition involves identifying correct information among incorrect options.

• Multiple-choice questions test memory recognition; the correct answer acts as a cue.

• Recognition is generally more accurate than recall for determining if a memory exists.

recognisition and cued recall

• Recognition: Given a list of names, identify those from the class.

• Cued Recall: Given cues like a class photo or initials, but not the actual names.

relearning

• Relearning (or the method of savings) refers to learning something again that was previously learned.

• It is easier than learning for the first time, especially for procedural memory.

• Skills like sports or musical instruments are picked up quicker after a break (muscle memory).

levels of processing model

1. Shallow Processing

   • Involves superficial details.

   • Types:

     • Structural Processing: Focuses on physical properties (e.g., "Is the word in capital letters?").

     • Phonemic Processing: Focuses on sound (e.g., "Does the word rhyme with...?").

   • Leads to short-term retention.

2. Deep Processing

   • Involves semantic processing, linking new information to existing knowledge.

maintainence rehearsal

• MR is a strategy for keeping information in STM or moving it to LTM by repeating it.

• Function:

  • Increases chances of retaining information in STM, which lasts about 18-30 seconds without rehearsal.

types of maintainence rehearsal

1. Acoustic or Visual:

   • Vocal MR: Repeating information aloud.

   • Sub-vocal MR: Repeating information silently in the head.

2. Visual/Spatial:

   • Using an ‘inner eye’ to maintain an image of an object or scene.

• Strengths:

  • Useful for coping with the limited duration of STM.

• Limitations:

  • Continual renewal of information in STM through rehearsal does not add meaning or link to existing LTM.

elaborative rehearsal

• Definition: Elaborative rehearsal (ER) is a method that enhances the encoding of information into long-term memory (LTM) by linking new information to existing knowledge.

• How it Works:

  • Involves thinking of examples related to the concepts being learned.

  • Encourages deeper processing of information.

  • The more connections made, the better the retention.

• Salience: Making information personally relevant can improve encoding.

• Self-reference Effect: Relating new information to personal experiences aids memory.

• Association: Linking new information to familiar information creates cues for later retrieval.

  

CTE

• Overview: CTE is a progressive and fatal dementia linked to repeated traumatic brain injuries (TBIs).

• Definition: Encephalopathy refers to any brain disease that alters brain structure or function.

• Risk Factors:

  • Individuals with TBIs in early to midlife are at a higher risk of developing dementia later.

  • The risk increases with multiple TBIs.

• Characteristics: CTE is marked by cognitive, motor, and emotional dysfunction.

• Historical Context: Originally termed "punch-drunk syndrome" in boxers, now recognized in various athletes and military veterans.

causes of CTE

• Primary Risk Factor: Repeated traumatic brain injuries.

• Mechanism: A forceful blow to the head causes rapid back-and-forth movement.

• The brain bounces off the skull, damaging delicate cells and structures.

• This can lead to ongoing brain tissue deterioration and atrophy, resulting in loss of brain mass and impaired communication between nerve cells.

concussion

• A temporary injury from a violent jolt to the head.

• Disturbs brain function but is not a structural injury.

• Diagnosed by observing symptoms like dizziness, confusion, nausea, and unsteadiness.

• Subconcussion:

  • A bump or jolt to the head that does not cause noticeable symptoms.

cte progression

• Symptoms start with confusion and mood disturbances, progressing to dementia, speech difficulties, and motor decline.

age onset

• Younger onset: Mood and behavioral disturbances.

• Older onset: Cognitive decline.

CTE stages

1. Stage 1:

   • Headaches, loss of attention, mild short-term memory deficits.

2. Stage 2:

   • Anxiety, depression, suicidality, irritability, increased aggression, lack of impulse control.

3. Stage 3:

   • Cognitive impairment, executive function problems (planning, organization, multi-tasking, judgment), severe memory loss, apathy.

4. Stage 4:

   • A form of dementia with profound language deficits, psychotic symptoms, motor deficits, and significant cognitive impairments affecting daily living.

CTE symptoms

• There is currently no cure for CTE.

• Supportive treatments for CTE symptoms include:

  1. Behavioral therapy for mood swings.

  2. Pain management therapy.

  3. Regular exercise.

  4. Good nutrition, avoiding alcohol and smoking.

  5. Memory exercises to enhance recall.

  6. Laboratory sleep assessments for conditions like obstructive sleep apnea.

  7. Certain medications for cognitive and behavioral symptoms.

• Learning to manage CTE symptoms can improve quality of life, reducing pain, enhancing memory, and stabilizing mood.

alzheimers disease

• Alzheimer’s disease is a neurodegenerative condition leading to progressive brain tissue loss (atrophy) and is ultimately fatal.

• It is characterized by:

  • Gradual degeneration of brain neurons.

  • Memory decline and deterioration of cognitive and social skills.

  • Personality changes.

• The progression of AD varies, but it typically leads to complete dependence and death within 7 to 10 years.

• Common symptoms include severe memory loss, confusion, impaired attention, disordered thinking, and depression.

AD memory loss

• AD progressively destroys neurons, leading to memory loss:

  • The outer brain is usually affected first, causing short-term memory loss.

  • As the disease progresses, long-term memory is increasingly impaired.

  • Explicit memories are primarily affected, while implicit memories remain more intact.

• AD involves both anterograde amnesia (difficulty forming new memories) and retrograde amnesia (difficulty recalling past memories).

cause of ad

• Causes of AD can be genetic and neurological, contributing to memory loss and cognitive decline.

• Brain tissue changes in AD include:

  • Tangled neurons and protein deposits disrupting cell function.

  • Low levels of neurotransmitters, especially acetylcholine (ACh), crucial for memory.

• ACh is released by cholinergic neurons, facilitating communication between neurons.

• Impaired ACh functioning leads to deterioration of neural pathways in memory and learning, primarily in the hippocampus and frontal/temporal lobes.

brain damage on ad

• Neuroimaging shows a connection between temporal lobe damage, particularly to the hippocampus, and cognitive impairment.

• The risk of AD increases after moderate to severe brain injuries, such as concussions.

damage to the brain in ad

• Examination of neural tissue in AD reveals:

  • High levels of abnormal structures, including plaques and tangles.

  • Amyloid plaques: clumps of beta-amyloid that disrupt neuron communication.

  • Neurofibrillary tangles: build-up of tau proteins within neuron cell bodies, interrupting synaptic transmission.

plaques and tangles

• Beta Amyloid Plaques:

  • Fragments of the protein beta amyloid.

  • Normally broken down and eliminated in healthy individuals.

  • In AD, these fragments accumulate, forming hard, insoluble plaques around neurons.

  • Impairs synapses and inhibits communication between neurons.

• Neurofibrillary Tangles:

  • Abnormal build-up of protein (tau) inside neurons.

  • Associated with the death of brain cells.

  • Tau accumulates in an insoluble form, forming twisted fibers.

  • Inhibits transport of essential substances within neurons, leading to cell death.

aging and alzheimers

• Both amyloid plaques and neurofibrillary tangles can occur with normal aging.

• They are more abundant in individuals with AD symptoms.

• Unclear if plaques and tangles cause AD or form due to it

damage to the brain

• Hippocampus:

  • Post-mortem studies show shrunken cortical and sub-cortical areas due to neuron death.

  • The medial temporal lobe, especially the hippocampus, is severely affected.

  • Up to three-quarters of neurons may be lost, leading to significant memory loss.

• Frontal Lobe:

  • Plaques and tangles cause memory problems and difficulties with attention and motor coordination.

• Occipital Lobes:

  • Disrupted links between visual areas can lead to visual problems.

WKS

• WKS is a serious brain condition often linked to chronic alcohol misuse and severe alcohol use disorder (AUD).

• It consists of two disorders:

  1. Wernicke’s encephalopathy (occurs first)

  2. Korsakoff’s psychosis (occurs later)

• Approximately 80% of cases may remain undiagnosed.

causes of WKS

• Results from brain damage due to long-term alcohol abuse and poor diet, particularly a deficiency in vitamin B1 (thiamine).

• Alcoholics may neglect their diet, leading to low thiamine levels.

• Low thiamine can cause brain and nerve cell damage.

• Without treatment, WKS can lead to permanent memory loss and be life-threatening.

WKS symptoms

• Symptoms may appear suddenly within days.

• Anterograde amnesia: Difficulty creating new memories; often unaware of memory problems.

• Retrograde amnesia: Loss of past memories, especially from adult life, but may remember childhood events.

• Confabulation: Filling memory gaps with plausible but untrue stories, often done confidently and unintentionally.

Wernickes encephalopathy

• Confusion

• Lack of energy, hypothermia, low blood pressure, or coma

• Lack of muscle coordination affecting posture and balance, leading to tremors

• Vision problems (e.g., nystagmus, double vision, misaligned eyes)

korsakoff’s psychosis

• Severe, irreversible memory impairments (anterograde amnesia).

• Confabulation or incorrect recollection of events.

• Hallucinations (seeing or hearing things that aren't there).

• Repetitious speech and actions.

• Problems with decision-making, planning, and completing tasks.

• Lack of motivation and emotional apathy.

wks treatment

• Early stages (Wernicke’s encephalopathy): Thiamine supplements can prevent further memory deterioration but won't reverse existing damage.

• Early symptoms can be reversed if detected and treated promptly.

memory rehabilitation

• Memory rehabilitation therapies can help lessen symptoms.

• Severe cases may require residential care.