a nerve cell; the basic building block of the nervous system
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Dendrite
a neuron's often bushy, branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body
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Axon
the neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands
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Myelin sheath
a fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons; enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next
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Action potential
a neural impulse; a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon
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Refractory Period
(1) in neural processing, brief resting pause that occurs after a neuron has fired; subsequent action potentials cannot occur until the axon returns to its resting state. (2) in human sexuality, a resting period that occurs after orgasm, during which a person cannot achieve another orgasm
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Threshold
the level of stimulation required to trigger a neural impulse
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All-or-none response
a neuron's reaction of either firing (with a full-strength response) or not firing
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Synapse
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron
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Neurotransmitters
chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons. when released by the sending neuron, it travels across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, thereby influencing whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse
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Reuptake
a neurotransmitter's reabsorption by the sending neuron
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Endorphins
"morphine within" - natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and to pleasure
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Agonist
a molecule that increases a neurotransmitter's action
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Antagonist
a molecule that inhibits or blocks a neurotransmitter's action
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Nervous system
the body's speedy, electrochemical communication network, consisting of all the nerve cells
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Central nervous system (CNS)
the brain and spinal cord
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body
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Nerves
bundled axons that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles, glands, and sense organs
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Sensory (afferent) neurons
neurons that carry incoming information from the body's tissues and sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord
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Motor (efferent) neurons
neurons that carry outgoing information from the brain and spinal cord to the muscles and glands
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Interneurons
neurons within the brain and spinal cord; they communicate internally and process information between the sensory inputs and motor outputs
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Somatic nervous system (skeletal nervous system)
the division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body's skeletal muscles
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Autonomic nervous system
automatically regulates the functions of the body system outside of voluntary control
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Sympathetic nervous system
the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body, mobilizing its energy
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Parasympathetic nervous system
the division of the automatic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy
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Reflex
a simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus, such as the knee-jerk response
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Endocrine system
the body's "slow" chemical communication system; a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
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Hormones
chemical messengers that are manufactured by the endocrine glands, travel through the bloodstream, and affect other tissues
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Adrenal glands
a pair of endocrine glands that sit just above the kidneys and secrete hormones (epinephrine and norepinephrine) that help arouse the body in times of stress
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Pituitary gland
the endocrine system's most influential gland. Under the influence of the hypothalamus, it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands.
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Lesion
tissue destruction. A naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue.
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Electroencephalogram (EEG)
an amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity sweeping across the brain's surface. These waves are measured by electrodes placed on the scalp.
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CT (computed tomography) (CAT scan)
a series of X-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer into a composite representation of a slice of the brain's structure
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PET (position emission tomography)
a visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task
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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)
a technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer-generated images of soft tissue. Show brain anatomy
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fMRI (functional MRI)
a technique for revealing blood flow and, therefore, brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans. Show brain function as well as structure
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brainstem
the oldest part and central core of the brain, beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull; responsible for automatic survival functions
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medulla
the base of the brainstem; controls heartbeat and breathing
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thalamus
the brain's sensory control center, located on top of the brainstem; it directs messages to the sensory receiving areas in to cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla
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reticular formation
a nerve network that travels through the brainstem into the thalamus and plays an important roles in controlling arousal
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cerebellum
the "little brain" at the rear of the brainstem; functions include processing sensory input, coordinating movement output and balance, and enabling nonverbal learning and memory
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limbic system
neural system (including the amygdala hypothalamus and hippocampus) located below the cerebral hemispheres; associated with emotions and drives
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amygdala
two limba-bean-sized neural clusters in the limbic system; linked to emotion/processing fear and threatful stimuli
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hypothalamus
it directs several maintenance activities (eating, drinking, body temperature), helps govern the endocrine system via the pituitary gland, and is linked to emotion and reward.
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cerebral cortex
the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells that covers the cerebral hemispheres
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glial cells
cells in the nervous system that support, nourish, and protect neurons; they also play a role in learning, thinking, and memory
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frontal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead; involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements
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parietal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear; receives sensory input for touch and body position
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occipital lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head; includes areas that receive information from the visual fields
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temporal lobes
the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears; includes the auditory areas, each receiving information primarily from the opposite ear
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motor cortex
an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements
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somatosensory cortex
an area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations
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association area
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions; rather, they are involved in higher mental functions such as learning, remembering, thinking, and speaking
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plasticity
the brain's ability to change, especially during childhood, by reorganizing after damage or by building new pathways based on experience
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neurogenesis
the formation of new neurons
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Corpus callosum
the large band of neural fibers connecting the two brain hemispheres and carrying messages between them
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Split brain
a condition resulting from surgery that isolates the brain's two hemispheres by cutting the fibers (mainly those of the corpus callosum) connecting them.
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Consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
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Dual processing
the principle that information is often simultaneously process on separate conscious and un conscious tracks
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Environment
every nongenetic influence, from prenatal nutrition to the people and things around us.
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Chromosomes
threadlike structures made of DNA molecules that contain genes
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DNA
a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes
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Genes
the biochemical units of heredity that make up the chromosome; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing proteins
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Genome
the complete instructions for making an organism, consisting of all the genetic material in that organism's chromosomes
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Identical twins (monozygotic twins)
develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two, creating two genetically identical organisms
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Fraternal twins (dizygotic twins)
develop from separate fertilized eggs. They are genetically no closer than ordinary siblings, but they share a prenatal environment
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Molecular genetics
the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
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Heritability
the proportion of variation among individuals in a group that we can attribute to genes. The (term) of a trait may vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied
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Interaction
the interplay that occurs when the effect of one factor (such as environment) depends on another factor (such as heredity)
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Epigenetic
"above" or "in addition to" genetics; the study of environmental influences on gene expression that occur without a DNA change
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Evolutionary psychology
the study of the evolution of behavior and the mind, using principles of selection
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Natural selection
the principle that inherited traits that better enable an organism to survive and reproduce in a particular environment will (in competition with other trait variations) most likely be passes on to succeeding generations
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Mutation
a random error in gene replication that leads to a change
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Resting potential
neuron waiting for signal; natural state
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Depolarization
ions moving/mixing up, making it more prone to firing an action potential
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Excitatory signal
the physical input to a neuron that signals it to activate
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Inhibitory signal
when the transmission of neuron signals are prevented by neurotransmitters
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Synaptic gap/cleft
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron.
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Acetylcholine (ACh)
a neurotransmitter involved in learning, memory, and muscle contraction
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Dopamine
a neurotransmitter involved in mood, movement, attention, and learning
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Serotonin
a neurotransmitter that regulates sleep, mood, appetite, and body temperature.
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GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)
the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system
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Glutamate
the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system; important for learning and memory
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Spinal cord
carries messages from sensory receptors in the body to the CNS and more messages from the CNS to skeletal muscles
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Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Secreted by the adrenal medulla; increases heart rate and blood pressure and dilates airways (sympathomimetic). It is part of the body's "fight or flight" reaction.
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Norepinephrine (Noradrenalin)
helps control alertness and arousal
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Pons
a part of your brainstem, a structure that links your brain to your spinal cord. relays sensory information to the cerebellum. regulates breathing, involved in the control of sleep cycles.
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Hippocampus
a neural center located in the limbic system; helps process for storage explicit (conscious) memories of facts and events
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Cerebrum
made up of two cerebral hemispheres that are separated by a large groove. The hemispheres can share information with each other through a thick bundle of nerves running between them called corpus callosum
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Prefrontal cortex
primarily responsible for the "higher" brain functions of the frontal lobes, including decision-making, problem-solving, intelligence, and emotion regulation
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Broca's cortex (Paul Broca)
helps control language expression - an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs the muscle movements involved in speech
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Wernicke's area (Carl Wernicke)
a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression; usually in the left temporal lobe
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Roger Sperry
studies split brain patients; showed that left/right hemispheres have different functions
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Michael Gazzaniga
1939-present; Field: cognition; studies the neural basis of mind with primary responsibility for initiation human split-brain research. In his subsequent work, he has made important advances in our understanding of functional lateralization in the brain and how the cerebral hemispheres communicate with each other
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Consciousness
our subjective awareness of ourselves and our environment
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Hypnosis
a social interaction in which one person suggests to another (the subject) that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.
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Posthypnotic suggestion
a suggestion, made during a hypnosis session, to be carried out after the subject is no longer hypnotized; used by some clinicians to help control undesired symptoms and behaviors
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Dissociation
a split in consciousness, which allows some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others
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Circadian rhythm
our biological clock; regulate bodily rhythms (for example, temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a 24-hour cycle
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REM sleep (rapid eye movement)
a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur. Also known as paradoxical sleep, because the muscles are relaxed (except for minor twitches) but other body systems are active
Studied by 311 people
