Educational policies and the structure of Britain's education system

Equality of opportunity & outcome

• Sociologists are interested in how educational policies have attempted to reduce inequality between social classes, genders, and ethnic groups

• A key question is whether policies have successfully provided equality of opportunity (giving everyone the same chances) or equality of outcome (ensuring similar results regardless of background)

Historical Context: 19th to Early 20th Century

• The development of state education in the UK was closely tied to industrialisation

• As society modernised, an educated workforce became essential

  • 1870 Elementary Education Act: introduced the first formal state involvement in education.

  • 1880 Education Act: made school attendance compulsory for children aged 5–13.

• However, education was highly class-based

  • Middle-class children received an academic curriculum, preparing them for careers in management, administration, or the professions

  • Working-class children were offered basic literacy and numeracy, preparing them for manual or factory work

Compensatory education policies (1960s–1970s)

• To tackle social inequality, compensatory education policies were introduced to support disadvantaged pupils from low-income backgrounds

  • Educational Priority Areas (EPAs) were introduced in 1967 in deprived regions like parts of London, Birmingham, Liverpool, and West Yorkshire

  • EPAs provided schools with additional funding, resources, and support to

    • raise academic achievement

    • improve facilities

    • encourage parental involvement

• These policies recognised that children from poverty-stricken areas needed extra help to reach the same standards as their peers

The tripartite system

• From 1944, education policy in Britain began to be influenced by the idea of meritocracy

  • I.e., students should achieve their status and be rewarded through their efforts and abilities rather than it being ascribed at birth by their class background

• The 1944 Education Act (Butler Act) aimed to improve equality of opportunity by creating the tripartite system

• This was where children were selected and allocated to one of three different types of schools:

  • Grammar schools for the academically gifted

  • Secondary modern schools for practical or vocational training

  • Technical schools for science and engineering

• Entry was decided by the 11+ exam, intended to sort students based on merit, not background and was seen as a step toward a meritocratic system

Evaluation of the tripartite system - reinforced class division

• It reinforced class divisions

  • Although designed to be meritocratic, it favoured middle-class pupils, who had more support at home and access to resources

  • Working-class children were disproportionately placed in secondary moderns, which limited their academic and career prospects

Evaluation of the tripartite system - reinforced gender inequality

• It reinforced gender inequality

  • Girls were required to gain higher marks than boys in the 11+ to obtain a grammar school place, so they had fewer educational opportunities

  • Subjects were gendered, e.g., girls steered toward domestic science while boys were guided into academic or technical subjects

Evaluation of the tripartite system - the system was bipartite

• The system was bipartite

  • Few technical schools were built

  • This widened the gap between academic and non-academic routes

Evaluation of the tripartite system - limited support for ethnic minorities

• Limited support for ethnic minorities

  • There was little recognition of racial or cultural diversity in policy

  • Many ethnic minority pupils faced language barriers, low teacher expectations, and institutional racism

The comprehensive school system

• The comprehensive school system was introduced in 1965 by the Labour government to promote equality of opportunity in education

• It aimed to replace the tripartite system with non-selective, all-ability schools where children of all backgrounds and abilities would be educated together

• The 11+ exam was to be phased out, and students were expected to attend their local comprehensive school, regardless of ability or class

• The goal was to create a meritocratic system where success would be based on individual effort and ability, not background.

Theoretical views on comprehensive schools - functionalist

Comprehensives promote social integration, social solidarity and meritocracy by mixing students from very different backgrounds and abilities

Theoretical views on comprehensive schools - marxist

Marxists argue that comprehensive schools reproduce class inequality.

Streaming and setting often place working-class students in lower groups, leading to lower expectations, limited opportunities, and fewer qualifications

Theoretical views on comprehensive schools - liberal feminists

Liberal feminists see comprehensives as having made progress in reducing gender stereotypes in subject choices and expectations. This is linked to improving academic performance among girls who outperform boys in many areas

Theoretical views on comprehensive schools - marxist feminists

Radical feminists argue that comprehensive schools remain patriarchal institutions that channel girls into stereotypical subject choices. This results in low-status and low-paid careers

Theoretical views on comprehensive schools - new right

Comprehensives lack standards, as there is poor discipline in inner-city schools and lower academic performance due to a lack of competition and choice

strengths of the comprehensive system - social barriers broken down

• Social barriers are broken down

  • Children of different abilities and social classes mix, which can promote tolerance and understanding

strengths of the comprehensive system - non-selective admission

• Non-selective admissions:

  • All children have access regardless of academic ability, so no child is labelled a "failure" at 11, due to the 11+ exams

  • This is a fairer system, particularly for late developers

strengths of the comprehensive system - broader curriculum and qualifications

• Broader curriculum and qualifications

  • A range of academic and vocational pathways supports less academic students

strengths of the comprehensive system - strong comprehensives perform well

• Strong comprehensives perform well

  • Top schools often match or exceed private school results

strengths of the comprehensive system - catchment areas

• Catchment areas

  • Encourages community engagement by enrolling local students

weaknesses of the comprehensive system - limited parental choice

• Limited parental choice

  • Most students must attend their nearest school, regardless of its quality or reputation

weaknesses of the comprehensive system - reproduces class inequality

• Reproduces class inequality

  • Schools in working-class areas remain predominantly working-class (e.g., inner-city schools), limiting true social mixing

weaknesses of the comprehensive system - catchment inequality

• Catchment inequality

  • Popular comprehensives increase local house prices, pricing out working-class families

weaknesses of the comprehensive system - streaming setting

• Streaming and setting

  • Organising students in classes according to ability reinforces class divisions, as middle-class pupils dominate top sets

weaknesses of the comprehensive system - mixed-ability teaching challenges

• Mixed-ability teaching challenges

  • Critics argue that more able students may be held back by slower learners in mixed-ability classes

weaknesses of the comprehensive system - not fully comprehensive nationwide

• Not fully comprehensive nationwide

  • Some local authorities still maintain grammar schools, meaning selection still exists in parts of the UK

Education policies 1979-1988

• Following the 1979 election, the Conservative government, led by Margaret Thatcher, introduced major changes to education policy

• The focus shifted from promoting equal opportunities to emphasising marketisation, parental choice, and competition

  • These are key features of New Right ideology

Key developments and the Education Reform Act

• 1979: Thatcher becomes Prime Minister, promoting greater parental choice

• 1980s: Introduction of ‘new vocationalism’

  • These were schemes designed to prepare young people for work, as it was argued that unemployment was caused by a skills crisis

    • E.g., YTS and GNVQs

• 1988: The Education Reform Act (ERA) introduces key reforms to endorse marketisation, parental choice, and competition:

  • National Curriculum: All state schools must follow a set programme of subjects

  • Standardised testing: SATs and GCSEs introduced to measure performance

  • Ofsted inspections: External assessments of school performance begin

  • League tables: School performance is ranked and published to encourage competition and parental choice

  • Selection: Schools could select a portion of their intake

  • City Technology Colleges: Set up in inner-city areas to raise standards and increase parental choice

  • Diversification: More school types introduced, including grant-maintained schools with control on marketing, admissions, and selection

Criticisms of the Education Reform Act (1988) - over emphasis on testing

• Overemphasis on testing

  • The ERA introduced frequent testing (e.g., SATs and GCSEs), which placed pressure on students and teachers

  • Critics argue this led to "teaching to the test", where lessons focused on exam performance rather than deep understanding or creativity

Criticisms of the Education Reform Act (1988) - flawed marketing principles

• Flawed market principles

  • The education system was framed as a market, with schools competing for pupils

  • However, parents don’t pay fees, so the concept of a true market based on price and choice doesn’t fully apply

Criticisms of the Education Reform Act (1988) - unfair school practices

• Unfair school practices

  • To boost league table performance, some schools excluded low-achieving pupils to protect their image

  • This practice prioritised results over inclusion, disadvantaging vulnerable or struggling students

Criticisms of the Education Reform Act (1988) - restricted parental choice

• Restricted parental choice

  • Although the ERA promised greater choice, popular schools filled up quickly, leaving many parents unable to access their preferred school

  • In reality, parental choice was limited by catchment areas, availability, and oversubscription

Marketisation and parentocracy in education

• The 1988 Education Reform Act (ERA) introduced the concept of marketisation - the idea that schools should operate like businesses in a competitive market

• Schools were expected to compete for students and funding, and parents were given more consumer-like power to choose where to send their children

  • This increase in parental choice over education is referred to as parentocracy

• New Right thinkers supported marketisation, arguing that

  • Competition between schools would raise standards

  • Parents, as “customers”, would drive improvement by choosing the best-performing schools

  • Underperforming schools would be pressured to improve or face closure

Key features of marketisation - school promotion

• To attract students, schools began marketing themselves through:

  • Websites showing exam results, Ofsted reports, and curriculum details

  • Prospectuses highlighting facilities, subjects, and school culture

  • Social media presence and open evenings to engage prospective parents and showcase strengths

Key features of marketisation - league tables

• Published annually by the Department for Education, league tables show how schools perform in GCSEs, SATs, and other national tests

• These enable parents to compare schools based on exam success and make informed choices

• Schools ranked higher in the tables are more likely to attract applications and funding

Key features of marketisation - types of schools

• There is a wider range of types of schools for parents to choose from, such as free schools, faith schools, and specialist schools

• Parents were no longer limited to the local catchment area, enabling them to shop around for schools that suited their child’s needs or talents

Key features of marketisation - formula funding

• Schools receive funding based on how many pupils they enrol

• Popular schools attract more students, leading to more funding and better facilities

• This can result in a cycle of success where well-funded schools continue to thrive

• Businesses may also sponsor schools, offering resources or work experience

Key features of marketisation - open enrolment

• Successful schools are allowed to expand up to their physical capacity

• This gives more students access to high-performing schools and encourages schools to grow and improve

Criticisms of marketisation and parentocracy - two-tier education system

• A two-tier education system

  • The 1988 ERA allowed schools to select students, leading to a hierarchy of schools

  • Top-performing schools were able to attract better pupils, while lower-ranked schools were left with students rejected elsewhere

Criticisms of marketisation and parentocracy - social class inequality

• Social class inequality

  • Ball, Bowe and Gewirtz (1994) argue that marketisation policies have reinforced middle-class advantage

  • High-achieving schools tend to cream-skim the most academic students, often from middle-class families, and are less likely to admit students with learning difficulties

Criticisms of marketisation and parentocracy - parentocracy is a myth

• Parentocracy is a myth

  • Parental power is not distributed equally

  • Middle-class parents can use their economic capital (e.g., moving to better catchment areas), cultural capital (understanding how the system works), and social capital (networks and influence) to secure places at the best schools

Criticisms of marketisation and parentocracy - inequalities between schools

• Inequalities between schools

  • Marketisation has widened the gap between schools in affluent vs disadvantaged areas

  • Schools in middle-class areas attract more funding, better facilities, and high-quality teachers

  • In contrast, schools in working-class areas may enter a self-fulfilling cycle of decline, where poor results lead to falling applications and reduced funding, making improvement even harder

Education policies 1997-2010

• The New Labour governments (Tony Blair and Gordon Brown) introduced a wide range of education policies between 1997 and 2010, blending ideas from both New Right and Social Democratic traditions

• Labour retained and modified the New Right policies of marketisation and encouraged some privatisation of aspects of the education system

• Their main aims were to:

  • raise standards in schools

  • promote social inclusion

  • improve working-class students' access to education

Key developments to reduce inequality - 1997

• The Labour government takes power

• Expanded specialist schools to raise standards in specific subject areas

• Primary school class sizes reduced to a maximum of 30 pupils for 5–7-year-olds

Key developments to reduce inequality - 1998

• Specialist schools are allowed to select up to 10% of students based on subject aptitude

• Introduced free nursery places for 3- and 4-year-olds to improve early years education

• Launched the New Deal: training, education, or work placements for unemployed young people to improve their chances of finding work

• Education Action Zones (EAZs) were created in deprived areas to improve school performance through additional funding and private partnerships

• University tuition fees were introduced to help fund expanding higher education

Key developments to reduce inequality - 1999

• Introduced Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA): financial support to encourage post-16 students from low-income families to stay in education

• Sure Start launched: an early intervention programme offering parenting support, childcare, and healthcare for families in disadvantaged areas

• Excellence in Cities (EiC) replaced EAZs to continue raising attainment in urban schools through targeted support

Key developments to reduce inequality - 2001

• City Academies were introduced to replace failing inner-city schools, often sponsored by private or voluntary groups

• Further expansion of specialist schools, aiming for half of all secondary schools to achieve specialist status by 2005

Key developments to reduce inequality - 2002-2007

• AimHigher (2004): designed to increase university access for students from working-class families and ethnic minority groups

• Young Gifted and Talented programme (2007): aimed to stretch the most able students, including those from underrepresented backgrounds

Evaluation of New Labour's policies to reduce inequality - raised standards and targeted support

• Raised standards and Targeted Support

  • New Labour policies led to a rise in the number of students achieving five or more GCSEs at grade C, including improvements among some ethnic minority groups

Evaluation of New Labour's policies to reduce inequality - contradictory approach to equality

• Contradictory approach to equality

  • Although Labour aimed to support poorer students through EMAs, they also introduced university tuition fees and replaced grants with repayable loans

  • These reforms may have discouraged working-class students from progressing to higher education, creating a paradox in Labour's approach

Evaluation of New Labour's policies to reduce inequality - gender gaps persisted

• Gender gaps persisted

  • Despite progress in some areas, boys' achievement continued to lag behind that of girls throughout Labour’s time in office

  • This suggests that New Labour’s reforms did not fully address gender-based educational inequality

Evaluation of New Labour's policies to reduce inequality - class divide remained

• Class divide remained

  • Ball (2013) observed that the class gap in educational achievement between working-class and middle-class students persisted

  • Middle-class parents continued to benefit from cultural capital, school choice, and access to higher-performing schools

Evaluation of New Labour's policies to reduce inequality - widening inequality in higher education

• Widening inequality in higher education

  • Tomlinson (2005) pointed out that although more working-class students entered higher education, inequality widened

  • This was due to the number of middle-class entrants increasing even faster

Marketisation and privatisation under New Labour

• While New Labour aimed to reduce inequality, they also continued and expanded market-based reforms introduced by the Conservatives

  • These included a stronger role for the private sector and school performance measures

Marketisation and privatisation under New Labour - raising standards through competition

• Labour retained school league tables and required all schools to meet national exam performance targets

• Underperforming schools, often in disadvantaged areas, were closed or rebranded as City Academies, supported by business sponsors

  • The aim was to drive up standards through new leadership and investment

Marketisation and privatisation under New Labour - privatisation of educational services

• Labour introduced the Private Finance Initiative (PFI) to fund the construction of new schools and colleges

  • These were built and managed by private companies, then leased back to the state

• Private exam boards, SATs testing services, and some Ofsted inspections became outsourced to private providers

• This shift led to increasing concerns that education was being treated like a business, focused more on efficiency and profit than student outcomes

Criticisms of marketisation and privatisation - PFI led to long term financial burdens

• PFI led to long-term financial burdens

  • Chitty (2014) criticised PFI schemes for being more expensive than planned, placing financial strain on local authorities

Criticisms of marketisation and privatisation - private contractions were inefficient

• Private contractors were inefficient

  • Chitty also highlighted that private firms often failed to deliver services on time or cost-effectively compared to local authority provision

  • This undermines the New Right's belief that the private sector is inherently more efficient

Criticisms of marketisation and privatisation - commodification of education

• Commodification of education

  • Ball (2007) argued that education has become commodified, meaning it is increasingly viewed as a product rather than a public service

  • He identified the rise of an Education Services Industry (ESI) that profits from running services formerly controlled by the state (e.g., school meals, testing, curriculum design)

Education policies from 2010

• From 2010 onwards, UK education policy has undergone significant reform

  • The Conservative–Liberal Democrat Coalition (2010–2015) was led by David Cameron

  • Successive Conservative governments (2015–2024) under David Cameron, Theresa May, Boris Johnson, Liz Truss, and Rishi Sunak

• These governments built on earlier New Right and New Labour ideas, promoting further marketisation, privatisation, and school autonomy, while reducing direct state intervention

Key developments and reforms - 2010

• The coalition government takes office under David Cameron

• Academies Act introduced:

  • All outstanding state and faith schools are allowed to convert to academies

  • Encouraged private sponsors and educational businesses to run schools, furthering privatisation

• Free Schools authorised:

  • State-funded but run by parents, charities, or religious groups

  • By 2014, 331 free schools had opened or been approved

• Higher education tuition fee cap raised from £3,000 to £9,000 per year

Key developments and reforms - 2011

• Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) abolished in England and Wales, cutting support for post-16 students from low-income families

• AimHigher programme scrapped: previously aimed to widen participation in higher education

• Michael Gove announces school rebuilding plan using Private Finance Initiative (PFI)—further privatisation of school infrastructure

Key developments and reforms - 2013

• School leaving age raised to 17 as part of efforts to reduce youth unemployment and encourage further education

• Curriculum reforms introduced:

  • Emphasis on traditional teaching methods, core knowledge, and "rigour"

  • Shift toward academic qualifications, such as tougher GCSEs and A-levels

Key developments and reforms - 2014

• Pupil Premium introduced:

  • Extra funding allocated to schools for each child eligible for free school meals (FSM)

  • Aimed to close the attainment gap between disadvantaged and better-off students

• Free school meals for all children in reception, Year 1, and Year 2 were introduced in England

Key developments and reforms - 2015

• School leaving age raised to 18, requiring all young people to stay in education, training, or apprenticeships until adulthood

• Conservatives win a majority and continue policies promoting academisation, standardised testing, and school accountability

Key developments and reforms - 2016

• University grants abolished for the poorest students and replaced with loans, adding to concerns about access to higher education

  • Critics warn that this may deter high-achieving students from disadvantaged backgrounds from applying to university

Key developments and reforms - 2017-2024

• Continued expansion of academies and free schools (2017)

• Greater focus on discipline, behaviour, and attendance, including government-backed policies like mobile phone bans and attendance crackdowns (2019)

• Growing concern around teacher recruitment, mental health support, and inequality exacerbated by COVID-19 (2020)

• Introduction of T-levels (vocational qualifications) to improve skills-based education (2020)

Evaluation of Coalition and Conservative education policies - raised standards and curriculum rigour

• Raised standards and curriculum rigour

  • Emphasis on core subjects, tougher exams, and a knowledge-rich curriculum aimed to improve academic performance

  • Some schools, particularly academies, have shown improved Ofsted ratings and exam results

Evaluation of Coalition and Conservative education policies - support for disadvantages pupils

• Support for disadvantaged pupils

  • Policies like the Pupil Premium and National Tutoring Programme were designed to close the attainment gap post-COVID

  • These aimed to target support where it was most needed

Evaluation of Coalition and Conservative education policies - increased inequality

• Increased inequality

  • Abolishing EMA and maintenance grants, alongside £9,000+ tuition fees, made post-16 and higher education less accessible to working-class students.

  • Marketisation encouraged social segregation between schools

Evaluation of Coalition and Conservative education policies - overemphasis on testing and league tables

• Overemphasis on testing and league tables

  • The system prioritises exam performance and school rankings, leading to teaching that focuses on "teaching to the test" rather than deep learning

  • This can increase pressure on students and staff while narrowing the curriculum (e.g., reduced arts provision)

Evaluation of Coalition and Conservative education policies - teacher retention and work load

• Teacher retention and workload

  • Ongoing issues with teacher recruitment, retention, and workload stress have affected school performance and morale

  • Government responses have been criticised as inadequate, especially post-COVID

privatisation of education

• Privatisation is where functions and services that were once provided by the state are transferred to private businesses, often intending to generate profit

  • In education, this means parts of the school system are run by private companies, often through contracts or partnerships with the state

privatisation of education - academy chains

Many academies now belong to multi-academy trusts (MATs), which operate like business networks

privatisation of education - supply teachers

Schools increasingly use private recruitment agencies to hire supply teachers, which can be more costly and shift control away from local authorities

privatisation of education - private finance initiative

Under PFI, private firms build and maintain school buildings, while the public sector pays back long-term leases

privatisation of education - privately run testing and exams

• The Educational Testing Service (ETS), a U.S.-based company, was contracted to manage SATs exams for 11- and 14-year-olds

• Some major exam boards (e.g., Pearson Edexcel) operate as for-profit businesses, selling qualifications, textbooks, and revision services

privatisation of education - educational software and edtech

Schools now rely on private platforms such as MyMaths, Google Classroom, and others to deliver digital learning, homework tracking, and data management

privatisation of education - ofsted inspection contracts

In 2013, inspection services were outsourced to three private contractors—Tribal, SERCO, and CfBT Education Trust—raising concerns about consistency and commercial motives

privatisation of education - commercial branding in schools

• Branded food and drink outlets (e.g., Costa, Subway) operate in some colleges and universities

• Vending machines and branded sponsorships expose students to advertising within educational environments

Evaluation of the privatisation of education - new right perspective is efficiency and choice

• New Right sociologists argue that state-run services are inefficient and wasteful

• They claim private companies are more likely to deliver high-quality, cost-effective education

• Privatisation is said to offer greater parental choice and the incentive to raise standards

Evaluation of the privatisation of education - education as a commodity

• Critics argue that privatisation transforms education into something to be bought and sold, rather than a basic human right

• This risks deepening social inequality, as the best educational opportunities may become unaffordable to working-class and disadvantaged families

• Ball (2007) warns that this process leads to ‘education for profit’ rather than for public good

Evaluation of the privatisation of education - loss of accountability

• Private providers are not directly accountable to the public in the way local authorities are

• Decisions about school services, staffing, and curriculum may be driven by profit not student welfare or educational values

Evaluation of the privatisation of education - marxist perspective is expansion of neoliberal capitalism

• Marxist sociologists view privatisation as part of a broader neoliberal ideology that aims to open up public sectors—like education and healthcare—for capitalist exploitation

• They argue it benefits the middle class and private corporations while leaving working-class communities under-resourced

Globalisation of education

• Globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness of the world through the flow of people, ideas, information, and economic activity across borders

• Technologies like the internet, air travel, and global media have made the world feel smaller and more integrated than ever before

Examples of global influence on UK education - curriculum and policy changes

• A more multicultural curriculum has been developed to reflect the diversity of modern Britain and global society

• Michael Gove claimed his curriculum reforms drew inspiration from high-performing countries like Singapore, Hong Kong, and Finland, focusing on knowledge-rich content

Examples of global influence on UK education - educational ideas from abroad

• The concept of free schools in England was influenced by similar models in Sweden and the USA

• The International Baccalaureate (IB) is increasingly offered as an alternative to A Levels, promoting global-mindedness and international standards

Examples of global influence on UK education - education as a global business

• Ball (2012) notes that elite British schools and universities now market themselves globally, opening campuses abroad (e.g., in China, Singapore, Russia) and attracting international students

• British exam boards (e.g., Edexcel, AQA, Cambridge) provide GCSEs, A Levels, and vocational qualifications to students in 160+ countries

Examples of global influence on UK education - international student mobility

Many UK students are now choosing to study abroad in countries like the Netherlands, Germany, and the USA, often due to lower tuition fees and courses taught in English

Evaluation of the globalisation of education - broader access to ideas and innovation

Globalisation encourages policy learning from successful education systems, promoting higher standards and better teaching practices

Evaluation of the globalisation of education - increased choice and cultural awareness

The rise of international qualifications (e.g., IB) and multicultural content supports global citizenship and awareness of diverse cultures

Evaluation of the globalisation of education - pressure to conform to economic priorities

Critics argue that education has become too economically focused, driven by the needs of global markets rather than holistic development or democratic citizenship

Evaluation of the globalisation of education - inequality in access

Global educational opportunities often favour middle- and upper-class students, who are more likely to access international schools, study abroad, or benefit from globalised resources

Policies aimed at increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students (class) - 1965 labour

Introduction of the comprehensive school system to promote equality of opportunity in education

Policies aimed at increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students (class) - 1998 new labour

New Deal for young people

Education Action Zones (EAZs) created in deprived areas

Policies aimed at increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students (class) - 1999 new labour

Education Maintenance Allowance (EMA) was a cash incentives for post-16 students from low-income families

Sure Start centres launched to support early years in disadvantaged areas

Policies aimed at increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students (class) - 2004 new labour

AimHigher introduced to encourage university participation for working-class students

Policies aimed at increasing opportunities for disadvantaged students (class) - 2014 liberal democrats under coalition

Pupil premium provided extra funding for children eligible for free school meals

Policies that reinforced or increased inequality (class) - 1944 conservatives

The tripartite system introduced, where grammar schools favoured middle-class children (Butler Act).

Policies that reinforced or increased inequality (class) - 1988 conservatives

Marketisation and parental choice gave middle-class families more advantages (Gerwirtz, 1994)

Policies that reinforced or increased inequality (class) - 1998 new labour

University tuition fees introduced, which discouraged some working-class students from applying to university