APES unit 4- Land

What are the three layers of the Earth?

- Core
- Mantle
- Crust

What is the Earth's core?

Has two laters (inner and outer) but both are metallic and the center of the Earth

What is Earth's mantle?

Mostly solid rock but has a liquid uppermost part that moves called the asthenosphere

What is Earth's crust?

Uppermost part, Earth's surface, split in mant places (plates) that move since they are on top of the liquid and moving asthenosphere

What are fault lines?

Where most tectonic activity occurs, it's the junction of plates

What is divergence?

When tectonic plate move apart from each other, it creates new crust

What is convergence?

When two plates collide, destroying some crrust and letting it go back into the mantle

What is transformance?

When two plates slde past each other, no crust is created or destroyed

When are earthquakes strong?

When compression or collision of rock/plates is involved- stores energy

When are earthquakes not strong?

When there is no compression of rocks- like divergence, the rock just breaks, does not store energy

Where are divergent boundaries typically?

Along two oceanic plates

What is ocean plate divergence called?

Seafloor spreading

What happens during divergence?

Two plates move apart, letting magma come up and fill the gap, creating ridges (ex. Mid Atlantic Ridge) from the magma and rift valleys betweeen ridges.

What are divergent earthquakes like?

Small and shallow, there's very little energy expelled because there is no compression

What is convergence?

When two plates collide

What are the two kinds of convergence?

Subduction and continental collison

What is subduction?

Land v ocean plates, the oceanic plate is denser so it goes under the land plate

What happens during subduction?

Ocean plate goes under land plate (ex. Ring of Fire) and melts in the mantle, rocks produce water from pressure and temperature change which decreases melting point and causes more rock to melt and magma to be formed, which spews up to the the surface (creates volcanoes)

What is continental collision?

Two land plates collide with very little subduction (same density)

What are the effects of subduction?

- Earthquakes: both shallow (from initial collision) and deep (from oceanic plate deep in crust towards the mantle)
- Mountain chains form from buckling plate and buildup of material, parallel to trench
- Ocean trench from where the oceanic plate is going under the land plate
- Large and powerful volcanoes
- Island arcs (usually Ocean v Ocean plates)
- Tsunamis from energy buildup

What causes tsunamis?

The energy built up durnng the convergence of plates in subjunction, releases a large amount of energy that goes out in all directions and builds up to large and very powerful waves that cause a lot of destruction and pulls debris back into the ocean

How can people prevent tsunami damage?

- Seawalls
- Floodgates
- Channels

How do people try to predict tsunamis?

Montoring seismis activity and pressure

Where was a large tsunami in 2011 and where?

Japan, hit the Fukushima neuclear power plant

What kind of plate movement is in the Atlantic?

Divergent

Where are fault lines in the Atlantic?

Mid-Ocean (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

Are there trenches in the Atlantic and why?

No, there is no subduction

Are there volcanoes in the Atlantic and where?

Yes, small ones on the ocean floor

Are there deep or strong earthquakes in the Atlantic?

Neither

What landforms are seen in the Atlantic ocean?

Mid-ocean ridges and rift valleys

What kind of plate movement is in the Pacific?

Convergence

Where are fault lines in the Pacific?

On the coasts

Are there tranches in the Atlantic?

Yes

Are there volcanoes in the Pacific and where?

Yes, on land though some are mid-ocean in volvanic island arcs

Are there strong or deep earthquakes in the Pacific?

Yes, both

What landforms are seen in the Pacific ocean?

- Trenches
- Large volcanoes
- Mountains
- Island arcs

What occurs during continental collision?

Strong and deep earquakes and mountain ranges form as the plates crash into each other- form mountains from lack of subduction

What happens at transform boundries?

The plates slide past each other, causing shallow earthquakes (Ex San Andreas fault line, California)

What is a hotspot?

Areas that have earthquakes, seismic activity, and form vocanoes NOT because of plate movements and often not at fault lines

How do hotspots form?

Unusually active areas of the mantle form a mantle plume, where magma makes its way through the crust onto the surface forming the hotspot and can form islands (ex. Hawaii) that have volcanoes

How do multiple islands form from a hotspot?

The plate above the hotspot moves, meaning there is a new area for an island to form

How are different islands volcanically active in relation to it's hotspot?

Islands closer or even still on top are newer and still active. Islands farther away are older and the farthest is the oldest, which become inactive as they move away from the hotspot.

What are the three steps of mining?

- Mine
- Ore processing
- Smelting

Wht happens during the mining phase of mining?

Phase 1

Upper layer of unwanted (waste) rock removed (called overburden) to get to lower layers where ore is

What happens during the ore processing phase of mining?

Phase 2

Ore (mix of wanted mineral and waste called gangue) is processed to separare wanted mineral from gangue

What is the difference of high grade vs low grade ore?

High grade- High wanted mineral content

Low grade- Low wanted mineral content

What is the smelting phase of mining?

Phase 3 (final)

Final processing to get the pure wanted mineral from that extracted from the ore, treated with heat and chemicals to get final desired metal

What is the most common type of mining?

Strip mining

What is strip mining?

Dig a trench to access ore, mine the ore, fill the trench back up with overburden and move along to repeat the process

What are the forms of open mining?

Open pit mining and mountaintop mining

What is open pit mining?

A pit is dug to access ores- just a big hole in the ground

What is mountaintop mining?

The top of a mountain (the overburden) is removed (blown up) to access and expose the ore within the mountain

What is subsurface mining?

Underground tunnel mining with infrastructure built

What are the pros of subsurface mining?

- Less land destruction
- Access to harder to reach minerals, just expand tunnels and underground infrastructure

What are the cons of subsurface mining and why is it not as common anymore?

- More dangerous (collapse, fire, gas buildup, black lung disease, cancer, etc)
- Need more workers
- Expensive
- More effort
- More safety measures to be taken
- Higher health care costs

What are the benefits of mining?

Provides materials/minerals necessary for our lives/lifestyle as well as natural resources and economic boots for mining communities (like providing jobs)

What are problems from mining?

- Mining scars and land alteration (land and habitat destruction- 'fixed' by reclamation meaning the mining company needs to put the land back as it was, but there will still be side effects)
- Subsidence (sinkholes)

What are helth problems caused by mining?

- Particulates (dust) harms lungs, reduced lung capacity and also black lung disease and cancer from asbestos, poor ventilation in mines, also toxic ash
- Risk of collapse
- Gas can build up and cause massive mine fires or suffocate miners

What are environmental problems caused by mining?

- Water pollution like acid mine drainage, iron and sulfuric acid in the water can also drop the pH and cause helvy metals to leach into the water and causes water to be nonpotable and organisms can't live in it
- Water pollution can get into the groundwater and pollute the groundwater and aquifers
- Produces a lot of solid waste that can be toxic
- Methane gas released
- Supplies and resources can deplete

What is mining waste called?

Tailing and slag

What is tailing?

Leftover waste afters crushing ore and extracting wanted material

What is slag?

Leftover waste after smelting

What is a biome?

An ecosystem defined by precipitation and climate

What is a temperate biome?

The climate of the biome changes throughout the year (more distinct summer/winter)

What is a tropical biome?

Consistent in temperature year-round

What is a climatogram?

A graph that shows both the annual precipitation and temperatures for a location, used to determine biome

What is a tundra?

- very low precipitation
- coldest biome, mildly warmer summers
- permafrost
- Poor quality soil, very little decomposition
- very few trees, little vegetation
- boreal (northern)

What adaptations are needed for tundra?

- down
- larger with short appendages to retain body heat
- hibernation

What is a taiga?

- seasonal, very cold winters and mild summers
- conifers
- poor soil, little decomposition
- boreal (northern)

What adaptations are needed for taiga?

- hibernation
- down
- cone shaped trees
- large w/ short appendages to retain body heat
- evergreens

What is a temperate grassland?

- moderate precipitation, summers wetter
- temperate
- very good soil- grasses die and decompose every year, great nutrient cycling (mollisal)

What adaptations are needed for temperate grasslands?

- hibernation
- burrows
- adaptation to regular fires

What is a temperate deciduous forest?

- moderate precipitation
- seasonal
- productive soils
- trees drop leaves every year (helps soil improve)

What adaptations are needed for temperate deciduous forests?

- hibernation or food stores
- broadleaf trees (catch sunlight)

What is a temperate rainforest?

- regular heavy rains
- seasonal
- poor soil- acidic due to conifer needles

What adaptations are needed for temperate rainforests?

- Shade tolerant trees
- use of snags (standing dead trees) and nurse logs
- hibernation
- conifers and evergreens

What is a savannah?

- very dry, usually 2 rainy periods
- reguar fires
- usually warm

What adaptations are needed for savannahs?

- scaly skin, thin fur, small size or large appendages to reduce heat retention and retain water
- estivation (summer hibernation)
- metabolic water
- seritonous plants (reprodduce after fire)
- xeriphyte (plants adapted to dry conditions)

What is a charparral?

- hot dry summers, wetter mild winters
- regular fires
- thin soil

What adaptations are needed for charparral?

- adaptation to fire (ex serinonous plants)
- estivation
- small size and large appendages to reduce heat retention
- scrubland
- xeriphytes (dry adapted plants)

What is a desert?

- very low precipitation
- thin soil
- temperate, slightly cold in winter

What adaptations are needed for desert?

- estivation
- metabolic water
- small size, large appendages, or scaly skin for less heat retention
- burrowing
- noctournal
- succulents and xeriphytes

What is tropical rainforest?

- rains constantly
- high temps and humidity
- hgh ddecomposition rates but poor soil because organic matter used rapidly

What adaptations are needed for tropical rainforests?

- plats ability to compete for sunlight or tolerate shade
- ability to resource partition due to high biodiversity
- ability to live in trees and move easily

What is soil made of?

- 45% rock and mineral
- 25% air (level varies)
- 25% water (level varies)
- 5% organic matter

Where is the organic matter level the highest?

Near the surface

Where are rocks and large chunks of parent material found?

Deep in the soil

What services does soil provide?

- nutrients and support for plants
- stores water and carbon
- purifies water (percolation)
- habitat and medicines

What is the acronym for soil forming factors?

COPTT

What is the C in COPTT?

Climate- warm weater promotes more decomposition, more decomposition the more advanced the soil, usually

What is the O in COPTT?

Organisms- help form organic matter

What is the P in COPTT?

Parent material- what type of rock is forming much of the soil

What is the TT in COPTT?

Topography- soil erodes downhill
Time- more time, more soil formation

What are the soil horizons in order?

O-A-E-B-C

What is the O horizon?

Topmost, layer of organic matter in large chunks and small bits (humus), usually small

What is the A horizon?

Topsoil- mix of humus and minerals

What is the E horizon?

Zone of eluviation (leaching of nutrients)- usually white from nutrients being taken out via percolation, doesn't always occur

What is the B horizon?

Subsoil/zone of iluviation (accumulation of nutrients)- mostly inorganic material like rock chunks from parent material underneath

What is the C horizon?

Large chunks of hard rock (parent material)

What are the qualities of soil?

- texture
- permiability
- porosity
- density
- color
- pH
- salinity
- NKP
- rates of decomposition and nitrogen fixation