Arch exam 1

Archaeology

the study of human remains

Historical (text‐aided) archeology

examining the remains of cultures with writing

prehistoric archeology

examining the remains of cultures without writing

Archeological Record

all encompassing record of surviving and retrievable material remains

Artifacts

portable objects whose form is modified or created by human activity (ex: pots, stone tools)

features

non portable human remains (ex: burial sites, trash heaps, roads)

ecofacts

non artifactual natural remains that have cultural relevance (ex: bones, seeds, soil, plants)

regions

a definable area bounded by topographic, ecological, or cultural features

Behavioral Processes

human activities that produce remains. 4 Stages: aquisition, manufacture, use, and desposition

Transformational Processes

all processes from time of despostion til the archeologist finds them as data (can include natural and human processes)

Site formation (taphonomy)

what happens to plants/ animals after death (rot, disasters, natural disasters) all taint artifacts

Matrix

physical medium that holds and surrounds data (dirt, gravel, rock)

provenience

3D location of data within matrix

Context

Where and with what materials are found

Primary Context

senario where the provenience and context remain undisturbed (materials can be placed due to use or transposed there by ORIGINAL human activity)

Secondary Context

alterations of provenience, association, and matrix by transitive processes caused by natural or human activity (ex: burrowing animals moving artifacts vs grave robbing)

middens

special waste disposal areas in sites

analogy

form of reasoning where the identity and function of the unknown is informed by the known

Specific Analogy

comparisons within one cultural tradition that inform only that tradition

General Analogy

broad comparisons across many cultural traditions

Sources of analogy

Underlies all prehistoric archeology and is used to make generalizations of data using other information from that same or

Ethnography

what anthropologists write about different cultures

Hist. sources (ethnohistory)

enthnography before it was invented; contains writings not from anthropologists (ex: colonizer journals, trackers)

Ethnoarchaeology

done by archeologists on material culture of living people (ex: garbage project, cigarette project)

Experimental archaeology

controlled replication of artifacts or activities (ex; butchering an animal with stone tools)

Rise of scientific approach to the past (mid‐1800s)

origins of Arch. came from antiquarians who focused on beauty and religion, while ignoring the culture and context surrounding the data; mound builder debate was common; science was introduced with the Three Age System

Mound Builder Debate

Europeans determining natives to be “to primitive” to make mounds, so thought an ancient race of white people did it

Culture‐Historical approach

archaeological theory that emphasises defining historical societies into distinct ethnic and cultural groupings according to their material culture

Contemporary archaeology:

study of archeology as a science; viewed culture as a series of adaptations and a series of universal patterns that explain the past

Processual arch.

cultures as systems of interlinked processes; enviroment drives the system though adapation

Postprocessual arch.

focuses on human agency in cultural change ; questions objectivity of archeology; attempts to view society from an insiders perspective while viewing sub divisions of that society

Three age system

The idea that prehistory can be broken up into the Stone Age, the Bronze Age, and the Iron Age (only applied to Europe)

Uniformitarianism

the idea where geological conditions are the same across time

Unilinear evolution

all societies pass though the same stages of cultural development

Cultural relativism

there is no universal standard for judging human progress

Functionalism

culture is deigned to fufill important functions and meet human needs

Cultural ecology

human culture is adaptive to the enviroment

Christian J. Thomsen

invented the Three Age System

Lewis Henry Morgan

wrote Ancient Society (1877) in which he described three stages of human society: Savagery, Barbarism, and Civilization. These stages can only be advanced by Pottery and Writing

Franz Boas

“Father of Anthropology”; founded the ideas of cultural relativism and historical particularism

historical particularism

each culture is a product of specific historical circumstance

Julian Steward

inspired by functionalism; developed cultural ecology

Lewis Binford

introduced the concept of Processual Archeology; thought that archeology is a science, culture adapts, and there is a universal patterns that explain the past

Survey

locating sites and finding info without excavation (ex: looking though satalite photos, LIDAR (topography))

Field walking

pedestrians walking throughout parts of the field to find possible sites; best in flat areas; very expensive

surface collections

collecting artifacts left on the ground without digging; only do this to a portion of site (labor); useful for finding era of the site or use of the site; most useful on low vegetation areas

subsurface sampling

using shovels to obtain cores of dirt and digging test pits (useful in forests)

geophysical methods

series of methods to show what is underground including:

ground penetrating radar (hits objects underground with radar)

magnetrometry (shows what metals are underground)

and soil resistivity (probing the ground for soil type)

Excavation

the most expensive and time consuming method, but gives the most info

screening

sifting through soil to find small shards of artifacts

flotation

putting dirt into water (used for finding seeds and organic matter that floats)

random Sampling

data that is representative of total population of site; usually computer generated in order to be representative of the site, so the data can be generalized

judgment sampling

seeking out data directly related to the research question

Analysis

classifying different pieces of data depends on research, but is mostly classified based on what material the data is or where it was found; then the data is subjected to several different analysises (lithic, skeletal, botanical, and ceramic)

Relative Dating

Calculates age from comparison to a different object or time period (old vs young)

Stratigraphy

Analysis on the order and position of strata (dirt) and archeological data; a relative dating technique

Seriation

The idea that styles of objects change over time. There are two types: Stylistic (orders by style over time) and Frequency (orders sites based on frequency of artifact styles within them)

Absolute Dating

Dating by an approximate age (100 year range); mostly done by chemical analysis with some exceptions

Radiopotassuim (K-AR Dating)

Studies the ratio of potassium 40 to argon and volcanic rock and ash; the more argon present the older the rock or ash is; useful from 40 million years ago til 20k years ago

Radiocarbon (C‐14) dating

Measures the ratio of C-14 to C-12 in an organic material; less C-14= older. Useful from 40,000 to 300ya. Dates have to be calibrated to a relative date in order for measures to be accurate

Dendrochronology

The study of counting tree rings. A tree grows a new ring each year, so a new ring= a new year

Sediment cores, ice cores

taking a core from dirt or ice to see periods of drought; in ice you can see dirt from field disturbance; how dirt accumulates in ponds

Tree‐ring series

using tree rings to see age and periods of drought

Pollen series

using the pollen to find what species were present in a particular era. Can see what plants are local vs ones spread across differences. Not all pollen is wind borne, but some are spread across land though wind

Archaeobotany

studying remains of plants (seeds, pollen); find remnants of seeds on grinding stone to determine diet of peoples

Archaeozoology

studying how animals were used by humans over time; studies a change macrofauna to more seasonal local animals

Domestication

humans controlling the life cycle of plants and animals. Great enough to cause changes in physical form and DNA

Australopithecines (bipedal apes)

sucessors of the earliest hominin, but defined by bipedalism. lived 4-1 million years ago. Started out as a halfway point between AMH and apes, with an ape like body, brain, and sexual dimorphism. Eventually evolved into gracile and robust aust.

gracile australopithecines

more AMH like; bigger brain, ate plants and MEAT (first to do so)

robust australopithecines

more ape like (huge jaw muscles) , smaller brain, ate plants ONLY

Early Homo (1st toolmakers,includes “habilis”)

2\.75 to 1.6 mya; brains are getting bigger, jaws are getting smaller; first hominin to use tools (Oldowan tradition); hunted as well as scavanged; getting better but not perfect at walking

Homo erectus

1\.9 mya -\~50kya; able to walk and run well; lost most ape like body hair due to new lice varieties; labor becomes harder due to a reduced pelvis; originally used Oldowan tools then developed Acheulian tools; actively hunting(more and larger game); better brains which were able to learn and teach; contolled fire and cooked food; first hominin to leave Africa

Archaic humans

confirmed to hunt (using spears); used the Levallois tenique for making shards; used tools with handles (not for throwing)

Neanderthals

\~200-30kya in Europe and Central Asia; had larger brains than AMH (bump in back of the skull); very muscular and stocky; used insisors as tools (teeth); hunted big game and ate alot of meat. Used caves as structures to live in, but did not build structures. Higher rates of disease and injury from hunting prey; may have buried their dead and had culture, but this is highly debated, but they did paint in caves. used Mousterian tools, both better tools and VARIATION in those tools.

Anatomically modern H.sapiens

Originated in Africa in 200kya; had smaller brow ridges, same size brain as us, and small teeth and slender limbs, came out of Africa in 30kya. Leaky replaced other hominins, but still interacted and intermixed with them. Used throwing spears and a lot of varied tools (diverse prey). Built shelters, wore clothes, buried their dead in garments. Had less injuries compared to ancestors.

Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania

Gorge created from earthquakes, particularly fertile region. Found Pleistocene animal bones and Oldowan tools. In the site there were many rocks and bones (animal butchery sites)

Olorgesaile, Kenya

Sedimentary basin in Kenya. Found many hand axes and bifactal tools. May have been used as camps by hunter gathers

Oldowan tools

Golf ball sized tools, strong sharp edges, very rudimentary, but still had some specifications with materials and still could be used to butcher animals

Acheulian (incl hand‐axes)

The main tool was a hand axe which was tear drop shaped. The focus was on the remaining stone after the flakes were taken off, just like Olodwan tools. Was a Swiss Army knife of tools, same shape used around the world for many tasks

Mousterian (incl Levallois technique)

Used by Neanderthals. Variation in the tools made, more interested in shards made from cores.

Pleistocene

Geological age containing the ice age and the rise of humans.

Holocene

New era, we are currently in it.

Upper Paleolithic

AMHs started to emerge, complexity of behavior, tools, shelter

Mesolithic

Period between upper Paleolithic and neolithic. Rise of hunter gathering communities rather than big game hunting.

Neolithic

After Mesolithic. Rise of farming and domestication of animals

Paleoindian

American term for the Paleolithic

Archaic

American term for the Holocene

Late Pliestocene

Where AMH developed culture and hunting

Dolni Vestonice, Czech Republic

Cave sites of Spain and France (e.g., Chauvet)

Full of cave paintings, showed that people had culture and possible language

Peopling of Australia

Arrived as early as 60,000 BCE due to an ice age. But still had to cross miles of ocean to get there. Created rock shelters and cave paintings of boats

Lake Mungo, Australia

38-24,000 BCE, found early remains of a big site. Early hunter gathers and might have been using nets. Fished and occupied the site seasonally.

The First Americans

Pre Clovis culture. Walked the Bering land bridge. Stuck in Alaska due to ice sheets, but eventually melted so people could walk. Possible use of boats to circumvent ice sheets.

Monte Verde, Chile

(12,000 BCE)Lots of wooden tools, preserved by waterlogged. Peoples ate plants and hunted

Clovis culture

(11,200-10,900 BCD) used Clovis points for tools. People were seriously occupying places (not seasonal). Associated with big game kill sites

Extinction of the megafauna

After Clovis culture, started to go extinct in America and Europe. Most likely was due to hunting and the end of the ice age

Mesolithic / Archaic adaptations

Same period I’m the holocene, but Mesolithic was in Eurasia and Africa, while Americans call it the Archaic

Carrier Mills, Illinois

Archaic site, hunted by residents, Ate plants and animals and had a variety of tools. Graves were filled with ornaments

Dolei Vestonice, Czech

periodic site, but made dwellings. Made kilns and ceramics, and textiles. There was a complex ritual life and burials

Abu Hureyra, Syria

Occupied during natufian period . Investment in houses and farming, traded with other etc