APES Notes

Ecosystem

Includes all living and nonliving things in an area

Biome

Large area with similar climate conditions determining plant and animal species

Competition

Organisms fighting over resources, limiting population size

Predation

One organism using another for energy source

Mutualism

Relationship benefiting both organisms

Commensalism

Relationship benefiting one organism without affecting the other

Herbivores

Organisms that eat plants for energy

True predators

Organisms that kill and eat prey for energy

Parasites

Organisms using a host for energy without killing it

Parasitoids

Lay eggs inside a host, with larvae eating the host for energy

Symbiosis

Close, long-term interaction between different species

Resource partitioning

Different species using the same resources differently

Temporal partitioning

Using resources at different times

Spatial partitioning

Using different areas of a shared habitat

Morphological partitioning

Using different resources based on evolved body features

Nutrient availability

Determines plant survival in biomes

Shifting biomes

Biomes changing location due to climate changes

Salinity

Determines species survival in aquatic biomes

Depth

Influences sunlight penetration for photosynthesis in aquatic biomes

Flow

Affects plant and organism survival, oxygen levels in water

Temperature

Influences dissolved oxygen levels in water

Wetland

Area with submerged soil, adapted plants, and benefits like water storage

Estuaries

Areas where rivers meet oceans, high productivity due to nutrients

Coral Reef

Diverse marine biome with mutualistic coral-algae relationship

Intertidal Zones

Coastal areas between high and low tide, requiring adaptations

Open Ocean

Low productivity but significant oxygen and CO2 absorption

Carbon Cycle

Movement of carbon-containing molecules between sources and sinks

Carbon sink

Reservoir storing more carbon than it releases

Carbon source

Processes adding carbon to the atmosphere

Photosynthesis

Converts CO2 to glucose, storing carbon

Cellular Respiration

Releases stored energy, adding CO2 to the atmosphere

Nitrogen Cycle

Movement of nitrogen-containing molecules between sources and sinks

Nitrogen fixation

Conversion of N2 gas into usable forms like ammonia

Phosphorus Cycle

Movement of phosphorus between sources and sinks

Eutrophication

Excess nutrients leading to algae blooms and oxygen depletion

Hydrologic Cycle

Movement of water between sources and sinks, driven by the sun

Transpiration

Process where plants draw groundwater from roots up to their leaves, allowing water to evaporate into the atmosphere from leaf openings called stomata.

Evapotranspiration

Total amount of water entering the atmosphere from transpiration and evaporation combined, both processes driven by solar energy.

Runoff and Infiltration

Precipitation either flows over the earth's surface into water bodies (runoff) or trickles through soil into groundwater aquifers (infiltration).

Primary Productivity

Rate at which solar energy is converted into organic compounds through photosynthesis over a unit of time, leading to the production of biomass available for consumers.

Net Primary Productivity (NPP)

Energy (biomass) remaining for consumers after plants use some for respiration, representing the actual amount of energy available for higher trophic levels.

Ecological Efficiency

Portion of incoming solar energy captured by plants and converted into biomass, with only a small percentage transferred to higher trophic levels.

Trophic Levels

Hierarchical levels in an ecosystem where organisms are grouped based on their feeding relationships, with energy transfer efficiency decreasing as you move up the food chain.

Genetic Diversity

Measure of differences in genes within a population, crucial for species' ability to adapt to environmental stressors and maintain resilience.

Bottleneck Event

Environmental disturbance drastically reducing population size, leading to decreased genetic diversity and increased vulnerability to future disturbances.

Natural Disturbances

Events like tornados, hurricanes, or forest fires that disrupt ecosystem structure and function, sometimes more impactful than human disruptions.

Genetic Diversity

Having a variety of different genes within a population, which increases the chances of adaptation to environmental changes.

Ecological Succession

Predictable stages of growth that a forest undergoes, including primary succession (starting from bare rock) and secondary succession (starting from established soil after a disturbance).

Pioneer Species

First species to appear in a new environment, characterized by wind-dispersed seeds, fast growth, and tolerance to harsh conditions like shallow soil and full sunlight.

K-Selected Species

Species with a low biotic potential, characterized by few offspring, heavy parental care, long lifespan, and slow population growth rate.

Survivorship Curves

Graphs showing the survival rate of a cohort in a population from birth to death, with Type I curve (mostly K-selected), Type II curve (in between R and K), and Type III curve (mostly R-selected).

Carrying Capacity

Maximum number of individuals in a population that an ecosystem can support based on limiting resources like food, water, and habitat.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

Average number of children a woman in a population will bear through her lifetime, influencing population growth rate.

Malthusian Theory

Theory stating that human population growth is faster than food production growth, leading to reaching a carrying capacity limited by food availability.

Earth's Structure

Core, mantle, asthenosphere, lithosphere, and crust; with plate boundaries like divergent, transform fault, and convergent boundaries.

Convection Cycles

Movement of magma in the mantle due to heat from the core, leading to processes like seafloor spreading and subduction at plate boundaries.

Convergent Boundary

A boundary where two tectonic plates collide, leading to one plate subducting beneath the other.

Subduction Zone

Area at a convergent boundary where one tectonic plate moves under another, forcing magma up to the surface.

Transform Fault Boundary

Boundary where tectonic plates slide past each other horizontally, causing earthquakes.

Soil

A mixture of geologic and organic components including sand, silt, clay, humus, nutrients, water, air, and living organisms.

Weathering

The breakdown of rocks into smaller pieces through physical, biological, or chemical processes.

Erosion

The transport of weathered rock fragments by wind or water to new locations.

Soil Formation

The process involving weathering of parent material, breakdown of organic matter, and erosion depositing soil particles.

Soil Horizons

Layers of soil including O-horizon (organic matter), A-horizon (topsoil), B-horizon (subsoil), and C-horizon (least weathered).

Soil Degradation

The loss of soil's ability to support plant growth due to factors like topsoil loss, compaction, and nutrient depletion.

Soil Texture

The percentage of sand, silt, and clay in soil, influencing porosity, permeability, and water holding capacity.

Ocean Currents

Drives ocean current clockwise in N hemisphere, counterclockwise in S hemisphere, influencing weather patterns and hurricanes.

Air Circulation

The sun drives the pattern of air circulation seen in cycle C, affecting seasons and temperatures on Earth.

Solar Intensity

Depends on the angle of sun rays striking Earth's surface and the atmosphere they pass through, influencing temperature variations.

Albedo

The proportion of light reflected by a surface, affecting surface temperature by absorbing or reflecting sunlight.

Seasons

Caused by the Earth's tilt on its axis, leading to varying insolation, day length, and climate changes.

El Niño

A climate pattern in the Pacific Ocean causing shifts in atmospheric pressure and ocean currents, impacting global weather conditions.

Tragedy of the Commons

Individuals exploiting shared resources for self-interest, leading to degradation, overuse, and depletion.

Clearcutting

Deforestation method affecting biodiversity, soil erosion, air quality, and habitat loss.

Green Revolution

Shift in agriculture towards industrial-scale practices, utilizing mechanization, GMOs, irrigation, and pesticides for increased efficiency.

Impact of Agricultural Practices

Monocropping, tilling, slash and burn, synthetic fertilizers, and irrigation methods affecting biodiversity, soil health, and water quality.

Overwatering

Saturating soil with water, filling all pore spaces, hindering air entry for roots to access oxygen, potentially stunting growth or killing crops.

Soil Salinization

Accumulation of salt in soil over time, often due to irrigation with water containing small salt amounts, leading to toxic levels.

Groundwater

Water stored in permeable rock layers, used for irrigation, but excessive pumping near coasts can cause saltwater intrusion.

Pesticides

Toxic chemicals used to control pests, such as rodenticides (rodents), fungicides (fungi), insecticides (insects), and herbicides (plants).

GMOs (Genetic Modification)

Genetic modification of crops to introduce traits like pest resistance, e.g., Bt corn producing toxic crystals for pests or Roundup Ready crops resistant to herbicides.

CAFOs (Feedlots)

Crowded animal feeding method with grain, using antibiotics and hormones, producing waste that can contaminate water and emit greenhouse gases.

Free Range Grazing

Animals graze naturally without growth hormones, dispersing waste as fertilizer, but requiring more land and being costlier.

Overfishing

Depletion of fish populations leading to collapse, impacting biodiversity, economic losses, and causing bottom trawling and bycatch issues.

Urbanization

Conversion of natural areas to cities, increasing CO2 emissions, impeding groundwater recharge, and causing saltwater intrusion in coastal cities.

Ecological Footprint

Measure of resource consumption per person/group, including factors like food production, housing, energy use, and waste disposal.

Sustainability

Consuming resources in a way that preserves them for future generations, with concepts like maximum sustainable yield and environmental indicators.

Reducing Urban Runoff

Addressing environmental consequences of urban runoff through solutions like permeable pavement, rain gardens, public transit, and building vertically.

IPM Basics

Using a variety of pest control methods that minimize environmental disruption and pesticide use

Biocontrol

Introducing a natural predator, parasite, or competitor to control the pest population

Crop Rotation

Planting different crops each season to prevent pests from becoming established

Intercropping

Planting "push" and "pull" plants to naturally repel pests and attract natural pest predators

Soil Conservation

Agricultural techniques that minimize erosion and prevent loss of nutrients, soil moisture, and decomposers

Windbreaks

Using trees or plants to block wind erosion and provide habitat for pollinators

Subsistence Fuels

Biomass fuel sources easily accessible, commonly used in developing countries

Coal Formation

Peat compacts into coal over time under pressure, with lignite, bituminous, and anthracite forms

Natural Gas

Mostly methane, found on top of trapped oil deposits, considered the cleanest fossil fuel

Fossil Fuel Combustion

Reaction between oxygen and fossil fuels releasing energy as heat, producing CO2 and H2O as products

Horizontal Well

A well drilled vertically to a sedimentary rock layer, then turns horizontally into the rock layer.

Perforating Gun

Device that cracks the rock layer around a horizontal well, making it more permeable.