ANTH 210 Exam #2 (TAMU)

Egalitarian

-Believing in the social and economic equality of all people

-Bands have an egalitarian distribution of resources and power

Ascribed vs. Achieved status

-Ascribed- -A status you're born with

-Achieved- A status you earn

Reciprocal Economic System

Economic system based on exchanges among family groups as a means of distributing goods and services throughout the society

Tribe

-Very similar to bands

-100-1,000s of people divided into smaller autonomous communities

-Led by headman/ big men/ big women/ women recruited from within descent groups (little actual power/authority)

-Like bands, tribes have no socioeconomic stratification

-Egalitarian, no centralized rule

-Achieved status but no power

-Most common among horticulturalists and pastoralists- nomadic/semi-nomadic

-Tribes useful because they provide a measure of defense of property, animals, and gardens

-Measure against starvation

-Slow population growth, like bands

-Tribal org does not usually permit the entire society to act as a unit

-Generally multiple autonomous communities, but may integrate into temporary multilocal units

-Pan-tribal associations often are in the form of councils groups of elder men or women who are members of the same age set, warrior societies, religious cults, or secret societies

-May exhibit segmentary lineage system

-More closely-related groups likelier to ally

Chiefdom

-1,000s- 50,00 people

-Horiculturalists, pastoralists, and agriculturalists

-May be sedentary or nomadic/ semi-nomadic

-Formal integration of communities into a political unit

-Centralized power- one person or a group in charged of others; various levels of power and authority

-May be one or several chiefdoms in a society

-Ranked society

-Tend to aristocratic

Council, usually with a chief

-Unequal prestige, ascribed status

-Diffs in wealth, but not significant (not like class society)

power depends on complexity of a chiefdom

-More complexity= more power to coerce

-Food storage is key to chiefdoms

-Roots of a taxation system

-Social safety net in times of famine

Ranked society

-A group in which wealth is not stratified but prestige and status are

-Hierarchy

State

-10,000s- 100,000s+ of people

-Defined territories

-Multilocal- towns, cities, and nations

-Class and caste societies

-Regulation of duties/ rights by citizenship (v. kinship)

States have authority

-Centralized political entities with administrative bureaucracy-Solution for feeding and controlling larges, complex societies

-Societies with large-scale intensive agriculture

-Started out as chiefdoms, became more centralized and stratified

-Able to conquer and absorb weaker societies

-States have a monopoly on force (e.g. police (ACAB)and army)

-States have authority= legitimate use of power

Hegemony

-The social, cultural, ideological, or economic influence exerted by a dominant groups

-Quells resistance and maintains order

-Hegemonic ideology- offer explanations as to why the existing order in in everyone's best interest

Cultural hegemony

-Assume that dominant ideology is whats natural and individuals in this society internalize the rules of the dominant culture

-Subordinates comply with domination by internalizing its values and accepting its "naturalness"

"This is the way things were meant to be"

-Explains conformity: Easier and more effective to dominate people's minds than try to control their bodies

Subsistence system

The set of practices used by members of a society to acquire food

Food collection

-The process of collecting food by hunting and gathering

-Foraging (hunting and gathering)

Foraging

-Searching for food

-A foraging society is one that hunts animals and gathers plant food to eat/survive

-Rely on a wide range of flora/fauna naturally occurring in their environment to make a living

-Lack of territoriality-

No real value on land, just resources

-Minimal food storage- No surpluses

Generalized foraging model

-Bands~ 20-100 individuals

-Mobile/nomadic or semi-nomadic

-Fission/fusion- split up for periods of time to forage/ hunt separately

-Few possessions- due to being nomadic

-No craft specialization- no one person hunts/gathers a specific thing, everyone just kinda f*cks around- opportunistic

-Egalitarian generally; some have "big men"

Decision-making and power not centralized, instead it depends on consensus

-Kinship and marriage play a crucial role

-Primary basis of social organization and integration

-Friendship ties important

Informal leadership

Food production

-~10,000 years ago, movement from food collection (foraging) to production

-Cultivation of wild plants

-Domestication of plants and animals

-3 major types

-Horticulture

-Pastoralism

-Agriculture

Horticulture

-Grow crops with basic tools/ methods

-No mechanized tools, no irrigation/ fertilizations (this is what distinguishes horticulture from intensive agriculture

-Main method is shifting agriculture with slash and burn

-Yields more food per area than foregoing- larger groups

-Beginnings of social stratification

-Advent of property ownership to keep track of which fields are fertile or fallow

Slash & burn agriculture (aka slash & burn horticulture)

-Essentially, a land rotation system

-Cyclical, non-continuous use of crop lands

-Forest nutrients fertilize soil

-Highly destructive

-Destroys wildlife habitat

Pastoralism (Nomadic & Transhumance/Agro-pastoralism)

-Nomadic

-Dependent on animals

-Everyone travels with herd

-Transhumance/ agro-pastoralism

-Permanent settlements, only part of group followed the herd

-Also cultivate crops (horticulture or agriculture)

-Use of domestic animals permits dramatic increases in human population density

-Pastoralism provides precise control over reproduction and harvesting of animals- increases in food production per unit of land

Lactase Persistence

-Ability to digest dairy products into adulthood

-Lactase persistence found in many pastoralist groups

-Genetic adaptation; result of natural selection

Agriculture

-Cultivation involving continuous use of crop land to produce hardy, reliable, storable, and relatively nutritious product

-Increased control over the environment

Irrigation frees cultivation from seasonal domination

-Agriculture turned humans into ecological dominants

-Most agriculturalists live in states because agricultural econs require regulatory mechanism

-Large, dense populations organized around towns/ cities within states

-Highly territorial

-Complex, formal society systems

Irrigation

-The process of supplying water to areas of land to make them suitable for growing crops

-Frees cultivation from seasonal domination

Kinship

Biological or culturally recognized ties between members of a family

Consanguineal kin

Blood connections (genetic relatedness)

Lineal kin

Direct ancestors and descendants

Collateral kin

Descendants from a common ancestor but not in a direct line (not lineal)

Affinal kin

Related by marriage (spouse, in-laws, ect.)

Fictive kin

Family through some means other than blood or marriage ties

Parallel cousins vs. Cross cousins

-Parallel cousins

-Mother's sister's children

-Father's brother's children

-Cross cousins

-Mother's brother's children

-Father's sister's children

Kin selection

-Proposed to explain seemingly altruistic acts among humans and other animals

-Evolutionary strategy that favors that reproductive success of an organism's relatives, even at a cost to the organism's own survival and reproduction

-Ex- you share half your genes with each of your biological siblings. If a predator is approaching the group and you give an alarm call that alerts the predator of your location (and kills you), but you save 10 of your siblings and they all go on to reproduce, your genes are still being passed on to the next generation

Hamilton's Rule

-Altruism is favored by natural selection when rB>C or (rB-C>0)

Coefficient of relatedness

-Probability that at a random locus, the alleles there will be identical by descent (i.e. probability of sharing an allele due to direct common ancestry)

-Probability that if two individuals share common parent or ancestor, a particular gene present in one will be present in other

Westermarck Effect

Aversion to romance with those one grows up with

Incest avoidance

Reduces probability of kids with copies of deleterious genes

Descent

Determines lineage membership, ancestors, inheritance

Unilineal

Descent through one line of the family's (mother's side or father's side)

Matrilineal

Descent through mother's line

Patrilineal

Descent traced through father's line (most non-foragers)

Cognatic

-Non- unilinear

-Form of descent in which relationships may be traced through both females and males

Bilateral

Descent traced through both parent's lines (U.S.)

Ambilineal

Descent through either parent's line (most foragers)

Pair bond

Animal "marriage" its like their bond and agreement to f*ck

Marriage

-Socially approved sexual and economic union, usually between a man and a woman

-More or less permanent

-Rights and obligations between spouses and future children

-A culturally transmitted institution, backed by social, political, and ideological factors that regulate sexual, economic, and reproductive relations

-No single definition of marriage that can account for all of the diversity found in marriages cross-culturally

Sexual division of labor hypothesis

-Economic

-Males have a huge spike in productivity while females don't

-Females consume more than they produce

Prolonged infant dependency hypothesis

-Decreases maternal burden

-The idea that when we look at humans, they r very underdeveloped and r super dependent on the mother for a longer period of time

-This increases her burden- needing more calories

-With marriage the male can help with that burden

Sexual competition hypothesis

Minimizes conflict between males

Postpartum requirements hypothesis

-Combo of 1 and 2

-Prolonged juvenile dependency in human and lower female productivity means that women require more calories but obtain fewer

-Marriage can provide a solution for similar reason as #1 (provisioning food to females could mean more offspring an d healthier offspring

Endogamy

Marrying within a cultural group

Exogamy

Marrying outside of a particular group

Arranged marriage

-Too big of a decisions for a young person to make- affects whole fam

-Financial reasons (bride wealth, dowry)

-Cuz families have something in common

-Match child with someone from the "correct" social, economic, or religious group

-Many other reasons

Monogamy (and serial monogamy)

-Partnership between one man and one woman (assuming straight)

-Serial monogamy- common among middle-class north Americans as individuals divorce and remarry

-Increasingly more common as countries become industrialized

Polygamy

One individual having multiple spouses at the same time

Polygyny

-Marriage of 1 man and 2+ women

-More common

Polyandry

-Marriage of 1 woman to 2+ men

-Ex- in Tibet, patrilineal inheritance limited land

Fraternal polyandry (marriage of brothers to a single woman) keeps land together by preventing it from being repeatedly subdivided among sons from one gen to the next

Dowry

-Gift from the bride's family to the groom's family before marriage

-Typically seen in monogamous societies (Asia/EU)

-Can be traced back to agriculture societies in which land= most valuable resource/ inherited by males

Bride wealth/price/service

-Gift from the groom/s family to the bride's family before marriage

-Bride service- groom spends a period of time working for the bride's family as part of/ in place of bride wealth (common in societies with little wealth- Yanomamo)

-Typically seen in polygamous, small-scale, patrilineal societies, especially in sub-saharan Africa

Bride capture/kidnapping

-Kidnapping a woman against her will with the intent of forcing her into marriage

-Common marriage practice in parts of central Asia

Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan- particularly in rural areas

-Method of kidnapping varies by culture

-In Kazakhstan, group of men (or women) may trick a young woman into joining them for a party/festivity, but then take her to the groom's house to be married- refusing to marry would bring shame/ dishonor

-Ethiopia/ Rwanda- more violent- rape and then shamed into marriage

Post-marital residence patterns

-Matrilocality

-Patrilocality

-Ambilocality

-Neolocality

Matrilocality

-Husband and wife live with/ near the wife's family after marriage

-15% of societies worldwide

-Native American groups- Hopi, Navajo, and the Iroquois tribes

Patrilocality

-Husband and wife live with/ near the husband's family after marriage

-69% of societies worldwide

-Creates larger households that can be useful in farming economies

Ambilocality

-Husband and wife live with/ near either the husband's fam or the wife's

-7% of societies worldwide

Neolocality

-Husband and wife fine a new living arrangement, separate from wither families

-5% of societies

Common in U.S. and Western Europe

-Increasingly common for couples to start a new residence together before marriage

Avunculocality

-Husband and wife live with the husband's mother's brother

-4% of societies (usually matrilineal)

-Occurs in matrilineal societies societies - property, knowledge, or social positions are linked with men, but want to keep that wealth w/in maternal household; property and status passed from maternal uncles to nephews instead of from biological fathers to sons

-Ex- Trobriand Islanders

-Important magical knowledge and political positions passed through the mother's lineage

-Son of a chief does not become next chief; chief's maternal nephew (his sister's son) does

-Men & women both valued; neither patriarchy or matriarchy

-Avunculocal arrangement is so important that a man/woman w/o a cross-gender sibling will adopt one (woman must have brother to plant yams for her husband when she marries; man must have sister to pass on wealth to next generation)

Life History Theory

-Organisms proceed through their life cycle

-They obtain energy from their environment and invest it in life functions including maintenance/ repair of cells, growth, storage, or reproduction

Principle of Allocation

-Energy used for one purpose cannot be used for another

-Results in life history trade-offs

-Natural selection is expected to result in optimal allocation patterns given relevant constraints-Limited resources and

Engineering constraints

Life history tradeoffs

-How much energy is allocated and to which traits

Semelparity

-Grow and develop

-Breed once during their lifetimes

-Allocate all of their energy into that reproductive event, and then die in a pattern of programed death (many insects, some fish (salmon), all annual plants)

Iteroparity

Multiple reproductive events through lifetime (primates)

Parental care/investment/effort

-Parental care- any action by parent that benefits offspring

-Parental investment- level by which parental care reduces parent's residual reproductive value

-Parental effort- sum of all parental investments

Depreciable care vs. Non-Depreciable care

-Depreciable care- benefits of care decreases with progeny size

-Non-depreciable care- benefits of care do not decrease with progeny size

Compensatory vs. Promotional investment

-Compensatory care

-Help the needy child more

-Promotional care

-Invest more into the fit level if the needy child isn't improving- investing energy on the neddy child after a point inst worth it

Allo-maternal care

-Human mothers (typically) receive a great deal of support

-3-generational= grandmas

-Pair-bonding= fathers

-Compound fertility= older siblings

-Social living= other kin (female/avunculate)

Band

-A single local group= largest political unit

-Most informal, least structured

-Most common among foragers

-Usually nomadic
Small (typically <100 people), loosely defined groups

-Membership based on kinship and marriage

-Egalitarian distribution of resources and power

-Achieved status (v. ascribed)

-Informal political decision making
-Lead by persuasion and influence
-Authority not centralized

-Emphasize conflict prevention and resolution (over competition for food, mates, ect.)
-Fissioning= families deciding to leave and form their own bands

-Reciprocal economic system