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What is empiricism?
The practice of gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation rather than intuition.
How does empiricism differ from rationalism in knowledge acquisition?
Empiricism relies on evidence and observation, while rationalism relies on reason and intuition.
Why is empiricism considered fundamental to the scientific method?
It emphasizes evidence-based conclusions necessary for scientific inquiry.
What is basic research?
Research aimed at expanding knowledge without immediate practical applications.
What is applied research?
Research that focuses on solving real-world problems.
What is translational research?
Research that bridges basic and applied research by developing practical applications from basic research findings.
What is an example of translational research in psychology?
Using findings from cognitive neuroscience to develop treatments for mental health disorders.
How does applied research differ from basic research in terms of its goals?
Applied research aims for practical applications, while basic research seeks to expand knowledge.
What is the purpose of the method section in an empirical research article?
It details the study design and methodology used in the research.
How does the discussion section differ from the results section?
The discussion interprets the results and implications, while the results present data and statistical findings.
What is a cognitive bias that affects intuition?
Confirmation bias.
Why is scientific evidence more reliable than personal experience?
Scientific evidence is based on systematic observation, reducing bias and error.
What are frequency claims in research?
Claims that describe how often something occurs.
What do association claims indicate?
Relationships between variables.
What do causal claims suggest?
That one variable causes changes in another.
What type of research design is required to support a causal claim?
Experimental design.
How does an association claim differ from a frequency claim?
An association claim describes relationships between variables, while a frequency claim describes occurrence rates.
What is a conceptual definition?
A description of a concept in theoretical terms.
What is an operational definition?
A specification of how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study.
Why is an operational definition necessary in research?
It ensures that concepts are measured reliably and consistently.
How would you operationally define "happiness" in a psychological study?
By using a standardized survey measuring life satisfaction and positive affect.
What is the Belmont Report?
A document outlining ethical principles for human research.
What does the principle of respect for persons entail?
Individuals must give informed consent for their participation.
What does the principle of beneficence require?
Researchers must minimize harm and maximize benefits to participants.
How does the principle of justice protect research participants?
It ensures that the benefits and risks of research are distributed fairly among participants.
Why is informed consent crucial for ethical research?
It allows participants to make informed decisions about their involvement.
What is the role of the IRB in research approval?
To review studies for ethical soundness before they are conducted.
What ethical concerns did the Milgram study highlight regarding authority and obedience?
It raised concerns about the potential for harm and deception in following authority.
How is test-retest reliability measured in research?
By comparing the same test results at two different times.
Why is interrater reliability important in observational studies?
It ensures different observers yield consistent results.
How does convergent validity differ from discriminant validity?
Convergent validity assesses if related constructs correlate, while discriminant validity ensures unrelated constructs do not correlate.
Why is construct validity important in psychological measurement?
It confirms that a test accurately measures the theoretical concept it claims to measure.
What are double-barreled questions?
Survey questions that ask two things at once, making it unclear what respondents are answering.
Why are double-barreled questions problematic in surveys?
They can confuse respondents and lead to unclear or inconsistent answers.
How can leading questions introduce bias in survey research?
They may suggest a preferred answer, influencing the respondent's response.
What strategies can researchers use to reduce social desirability bias?
Anonymity, indirect questioning, and using objective measures.
How do response sets affect construct validity?
They can result in systematic errors in responses, compromising the validity of the construct measurement.
What is observational research?
A method that studies behavior by observing it without direct interaction.
How does observer bias differ from observer effects?
Observer bias occurs when the observer's expectations influence their observations, while observer effects refer to changes in behavior when individuals know they are being observed.
What strategies can minimize reactivity in observational research?
Using unobtrusive measures or allowing time for subjects to acclimate to observers.
How does stratified random sampling differ from cluster sampling?
Stratified sampling divides the population into subgroups for sampling, whereas cluster sampling selects entire clusters randomly.
Why is random sampling more important for external validity than sample size?
Random sampling ensures that the sample is representative of the population, enhancing the generalizability of findings.
What is the difference between random sampling and random assignment?
Random sampling selects participants from a population, while random assignment allocates participants to different groups in an experiment.
Why is random assignment crucial for internal validity in experiments?
It helps ensure that groups are equivalent, ruling out confounding variables.
What is the Pearson r?
A correlation coefficient that measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.
How does restriction of range affect correlation strength?
It can lead to underestimating the true strength of a correlation.
What does a 95% confidence interval tell us about statistical significance?
It indicates that we can be 95% confident the true parameter lies within the interval.
Why does a larger sample size improve precision in statistical estimates?
It reduces error variance and increases the reliability of estimates.
What is internal validity?
The degree to which a study establishes a cause-effect relationship.
What is external validity?
The extent to which findings can be generalized to other settings.
How do third-variable problems threaten internal validity?
They introduce alternate explanations for observed relationships between variables.
Why is external validity less important in laboratory experiments?
Laboratory conditions often prioritize control and rigor over generalizability.
How do moderators impact correlation analysis?
They can change the strength or direction of a relationship between two variables.
What research design can help rule out third-variable problems?
Experimental design, especially randomized controlled trials.