Research methods study guide for Exam 2

CHAPTER 1

Empiricism

Explanation: Empiricism is the practice of gaining knowledge through direct observation and experimentation rather than through personal intuition or reasoning alone. It emphasizes evidence-based conclusions.

Questions:

1. How does empiricism differ from rationalism in knowledge acquisition?

2. Why is empiricism considered fundamental to the scientific method?

Basic/Applied/Translational Research

Explanation:

• Basic research aims to expand knowledge without immediate practical applications.

• Applied research focuses on solving real-world problems.

• Translational research bridges basic and applied research by using findings from basic research to develop practical applications.

Questions:

1. What is an example of translational research in psychology?

2. How does applied research differ from basic research in terms of its goals?

CHAPTER 2

Sections of an Empirical Research Article

Explanation:
An empirical research article includes sections such as:

• Abstract: Summary of the study

• Introduction: Background and hypothesis

• Method: Details of study design

• Results: Data and statistical findings

• Discussion: Interpretation and implications

Questions:

1. What is the purpose of the method section in an empirical research article?

2. How does the discussion section differ from the results section?

How Personal Experience and Intuition Can Lead Us Astray

Explanation: Personal experiences are biased, and intuition is prone to errors such as confirmation bias and the availability heuristic. This can lead to incorrect conclusions.

Questions:

1. What is an example of a cognitive bias that affects intuition?

2. Why is scientific evidence more reliable than personal experience?

CHAPTER 3

Three Types of Research Claims

Explanation:

• Frequency claims describe how often something occurs.

• Association claims indicate relationships between variables.

• Causal claims suggest one variable causes changes in another.

Questions:

1. What type of research design is required to support a causal claim?

2. How does an association claim differ from a frequency claim?

Conceptual vs. Operational Definitions

Explanation:

• Conceptual definitions describe a concept in theoretical terms.

• Operational definitions specify how a concept is measured or manipulated in a study.

Questions:

1. Why is an operational definition necessary in research?

2. How would you operationally define "happiness" in a psychological study?

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CHAPTER 4

Belmont Report and Its Three Principles

Explanation: The Belmont Report outlines ethical principles for human research:

1. Respect for Persons – Individuals must give informed consent.

2. Beneficence – Researchers must minimize harm and maximize benefits.

3. Justice – The benefits and risks of research should be distributed fairly.

Questions:

1. How does the principle of justice protect research participants?

2. Why is informed consent crucial for ethical research?

APA Ethical Standard 8

Explanation: Covers ethical guidelines for research, including:

• Institutional Review Board (IRB): Reviews studies for ethical soundness.

• Informed Consent: Participants must voluntarily agree to research.

• Deception and Debriefing: Deception must be justified, and debriefing must occur.

• Data Fabrication & Falsification: Misrepresentation of research data is unethical.

Questions:

1. How does deception in research relate to ethical considerations?

2. What is the role of the IRB in research approval?

Tuskegee Syphilis & Milgram Obedience Studies

Explanation:

• Tuskegee Study – African American men with syphilis were misled and denied treatment.

• Milgram Study – Participants were pressured to administer shocks to others, testing obedience to authority.

• Both studies raised ethical concerns about informed consent and participant well-being.

Questions:

1. How did the Tuskegee Study violate the Belmont principles?

2. What ethical concerns did the Milgram study highlight regarding authority and obedience?

CHAPTER 5

Reliability Types

Explanation:

• Test-retest reliability: Consistency over time.

• Internal consistency: Consistency within a test.

• Interrater reliability: Agreement between different raters.

Questions:

1. How is test-retest reliability measured in research?

2. Why is interrater reliability important in observational studies?

Construct Validity and Its Five Types

Explanation: The extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. Includes:

• Subjective validity: Face validity, content validity.

• Empirical validity: Criterion validity, convergent validity, discriminant validity.

Questions:

1. How does convergent validity differ from discriminant validity?

2. Why is construct validity important in psychological measurement?

CHAPTER 6

Survey Question Issues

Explanation:

• Double-barreled questions: Ask two things at once.

• Leading questions: Influence responses.

• Negatively-worded questions: Confuse respondents.

Questions:

1. Why are double-barreled questions problematic in surveys?

2. How can leading questions introduce bias in survey research?

Response Sets and Social Desirability Bias

Explanation:

• Response sets: Patterns of answering without careful consideration.

• Social desirability bias: Respondents answer in ways that make them look good.

Questions:

1. What strategies can researchers use to reduce social desirability bias?

2. How do response sets affect construct validity?

Observational Research

Explanation: Studies behavior by observing without direct interaction. Includes:

• Behavioral observation, content analysis, archival research.

• Challenges: Observer bias, observer effects, reactivity.

Questions:

1. How does observer bias differ from observer effects?

2. What strategies can minimize reactivity in observational research?

CHAPTER 7

Sampling Types

Explanation:

• Probability sampling (random selection): Increases external validity.

• Nonprobability sampling (non-random selection): Often used for convenience but may limit generalizability.

Questions:

1. How does stratified random sampling differ from cluster sampling?

2. Why is random sampling more important for external validity than sample size?

Random Sampling vs. Random Assignment

Explanation:

• Random sampling: Ensures a representative population.

• Random assignment: Used in experiments to create equivalent groups.

Questions:

1. Why is random assignment crucial for internal validity in experiments?

2. How does convenience sampling impact external validity?

CHAPTER 8

Correlation Coefficients

Explanation: The Pearson r measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables (-1.0 to +1.0).

Questions:

1. How does restriction of range affect correlation strength?

2. What is an example of a negative correlation?

Statistical Validity and Significance

Explanation:

• Statistical significance means a result is unlikely due to chance.

• Effect size (r): Measures strength of a relationship.

Questions:

1. What does a 95% confidence interval tell us about statistical significance?

2. Why does a larger sample size improve precision in statistical estimates?

Internal and External Validity

Explanation:

• Internal validity: Whether a study establishes a cause-effect relationship.

• External validity: Generalizability of findings.

Questions:

1. How do third-variable problems threaten internal validity?

2. Why is external validity less important in laboratory experiments?

Moderators vs. Third Variables

Explanation:

• Moderator variables influence the strength of a relationship between two variables.

• Third variables create a spurious association between two unrelated variables.

Questions:

1. How do moderators impact correlation analysis?

2. What research design can help rule out third-variable problems?