Bio

bio for evolution

Cuvier

Cuvier

fossil record

Hutton

• the Earth is older than a few thousand years

Lyell

the Earth’s surface has been and still is being changed

Lamarck

theory of use and disuse - that stated organisms can alter the size and shape of particular organs by using bodies in new ways.

Malthus

population factors

Wallace

speciation (geographical isolation)

Fixity of Species

species never changed

Evolution

change in species over time

Natural Selection #1

All species have genetic variation

Natural Selection #2

Organisms produce more offspring than can survive

Natural Selection #3

Competition exists within and among species

Natural Selection #4

Survival of the fittest

Fitness

The ability of an individual to survive and reproduce in its specific environment

Natural Selection #5

Descent with modifications

Adaptation

any inherited characteristic (a genetic variation) that can increase an organism’s chance of survival

Species

a group of organisms that are closely related and naturally mate to produce fertile offspring

Speciation

the process by which new species form

Reproductive isolation

factors that prevent genetic exchange and maintain a boundary between two species

• habitat isolation

• temporal isolation

• physical differences

• hybrid sterility

Pre-zygote Temporal

Occurs when two species mate at different times of year

Pre-zygote Ecological

Occurs when two species occupy different habitats

Pre-zygote Behavioural

Occurs when two species have different courship behaviors

Pre-zygote Mechanical

Occurs when physical differences prevent copulation/pollination

Post-zygote Hybrid Inviability

Hybrids are produced by fail to develop to reproductive maturity

Post-zygote Hybrid Infertility

Hybrid fails to produce functional gametes (sterility)

Post-zygote Hybrid Breakdown

F1 hybrids are fertile, but F2 generation fails to develop properly

Extinction

When all populations of a species have disappeared, that species becomes extinct

Mutations

random changes in the DNA of an organism which is then passed on to its offspring, increases genetic variation

Gene flow (migration)

any movement of genes from one population to another, increases genetic variation

Genetic drift

mechanism of evolution that occurs by chance rather than natural selection, changing the frequency of the alleles. Phenomenon in smaller populations. Only happens when there’s genetic variation! reduces genetic variation

Gradualism

differences gradually evolve in populations as they become adapted to their local environments

Punctuated Equilibrium

species split in spurts of relatively rapid change, then barely change at all for long periods of time

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Genetic Equilibrium #1

large breeding population

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Genetic Equilibrium #2

random mating

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Genetic Equilibrium #3

no mutation

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Genetic Equilibrium #4

no migration

Hardy-Weinberg Law of Genetic Equilibrium #5

no natural selection

Founders effect

the reduction in genomic variability that occurs when a small group of individuals becomes separated from a larger population.

Bottleneck effect

occurs when a population is greatly reduced in size, limiting the genetic diversity of the species

Population

all the individuals of a species that live together in the same place at the same time

community

all the different populations that live together in the same habitat

ecosystem

a community and all the physical aspects of the habitat

habitat

where an organism lives

species

organisms with similar DNA that can interbreed

niche

the role of a species in its environment and includes its habitat, how it uses biotic and abiotic factors, and how it interacts with other organisms

biotic factor

any living thing in the environment (ex. tree, bird, grass)

abiotic factor

any non-living thing in the environment (ex. water, air, rock)

biodiversity

the number of species living within an ecosystem

trophic levels

the feeding positions in a food chain

energy pyramids

models that scientists use to show the flow of energy through ecosystems

10% rule

only 10% of the original energy is left to feed the next level. 90% of the available energy is used for life processes such as respiration, photosynthesis, and reproduction.

symbiosis

a close ecological relationship between two or more organisms of different species that live in direct contact with one another

mutualism

an interspecies interaction in which both organisms benefit from one another. a species may be so dependent that it cannot live without its mutualistic partner.

parasitism

a symbiotic relationship involving a species that directly harms its host. It is similar to predation, but unlike a predator, a parasite benefits by keeping its host alive for days or years.

commensalism

a relationship in which one species benefits while the other is neither harmed nor helped

competition

occurs when individuals use a shared resource in short supply. there may not be enough og it for any given individual to survive or reproduce.

intra-specific competition

individuals compete with others of their own species

inter-specific competition

individuals compete with others of a different species that require similar resources

competitive exclusion principle

two species that use resources exactly the same way cannot coexist. one will always have a slight advantage.

primary succession

Primary succession happens when a new patch of land is created or exposed for the first time. This can happen, for example, when lava cools and creates new rocks, or when a glacier retreats and exposes rocks without any soil. During primary succession, organisms must start from scratch.

secondary succession

a previously occupied area is re-colonized following a disturbance that kills much or all of its community.

population growth

an increase in the size of a population

studied by:

• counting small samples

• mark and recapture

linear increase

is a growth that occurs on a straight line when graphed. populations of organisms do NOT grow in this way

exponential growth

population increases and grows faster which populations can experience but it does not continue to grow forever - j curve

limiting factors

biotic and abiotic factors that determine whether an organism can survive in a particular environment. Things such as the availability of food and space that cause a population to stop increasing - s curve

carrying capacity

the number of organisms one species that an environment can support

density dependent factors

have a greater effect as population increases; includes disease, competition, parasites, food availability

density independent factors

affect all populations; temperature, storms, floods, drought, habitat disruption

crowding and stress

as populations increase in size, individual animals begin to exhibit a variety of symptoms including aggression, decrease in parental care, decreased fertility, and decreased resistance to disease

Tundra

Cold temperatures, little averae precipitation

Coniferous Forest/Taiga

Low temperatures, pretty low average precipitation

Temperate Deciduous Forest

Normal average temperature, a little higher amount of average precipitation

Grasslands

Normal average temperature, lower average precipitation

Tropical Rainforest

Pretty high average temp, a LOT of average precipitation, usually humid

Desert

Hot average temperatures, little precipitation

Arctic P & A Species

Reindeer moss, lichen,

heather, dwarf willow,

reindeer, caribou, polar bear

Subarctic

Pine, cedar, spruce, heather, wolf, mountain

lion,grizzly bear, black bear, bald eagle,

moose, squirrel

Temperate

Oak, maple, hickory, sassafras, deer, squirrel, raccoon,

skunk, rabbit, owl, fox, wolf, black bear, carpet moss, Big blue stem, rye, wheat, oat, creosote bush, bison,

coyote, prairie dog, grasshopper, fox, hawk, sparrow,

rattlesnake, Prickly pear, creosote bush, yucca,

coyote, rattlesnake, roadrunner,

armadillo, tarantula

Tropical

Mahogany, coconut palm, coffee, cocoa, orchid, fern, moss, lemon, orange, pineapple,

mangrove, pitcher plant, parrot, hornbill, monkey, jaguar, boa constrictor, toucan,

tapir, sloth, dart frog, centipede, crocodile, bat, anaconda, anteater, longhorn beetle,

giant walking stick, bird of paradise

Evidence for Evolution

1. Fossils

2. Biochemical/genetics - amino acids

3. Comparative Anatomy - homologous structures, embryology

4. Observable Events - events that happen in a lifespan

5. Biogeography - analyzing where organisms were/fossils

Anatomy

Anatomy is the study of the structures associated with the human body

Physiology

Physiology is the study of the function of each of these structures

Geographic Isolation

occurs when a physical barrier divides a population

reproductive isolation

occurs when organisms can no longer mate to produce offspring

Nitrogen Fixation

Most organisms on Earth are unable to use atmospheric nitrogen directly. In order for nitrogen to enter a community, it must first be converted into a usable form by special nitrogen "fixing" bacteria. Nitrogen gas can be converted into ammonia compounds and then converted into nitrates for the plants to use. Decomposition can also add to the nitrogen cycle again being converted to usable forms by the bacteria. Some cyanobacteria in aquatic ecosystems and some free- living bacteria in soil are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen. Other nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in nodules on the roots of legumes, such as beans, peas, and clover. They make organic compounds containing nitrogen available to the plants so that the proteins and nucleic acids can be formed.

Carbon Cycle

Plants and other producers take in carbon from the atmosphere in the form of CO2 to use for photosynthesis. The carbon dioxide is incorporated into nutrients that are used by both autotrophs and heterotrophs alike. When organisms, including plants, respire, carbon is returned to the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Combustion and decomposition also return carbon to the atmosphere.

Embryology

a branch of science that is related to the formation, growth, and development of embryo. It deals with the prenatal stage of development beginning from formation of gametes, fertilization, formation of zygote, development of embryo and fetus to the birth of a new individual.

analogous structures

are features of different species that are similar in function but not necessarily in structure and which do not derive from a common ancestral feature

vestigial structures

a biological structure that has lost a major ancestral function and is usually drastically reduced in size

stabilizing selection

a type of natural selection in which genetic diversity decreases as the population stabilizes on a particular trait value. genetic variation is reduced.

homologous structures

similar physical features in organisms that share a common ancestor, but the features serve completely different functions