Psychology 101 - Exam 2

Nature vs. Nurture

Debate over the relative contributions of genetic inheritance (nature) and environmental factors (nurture) to human development.

Evolutionary Psychology

Studies how natural selection shapes behavior and mental processes

Cross-Cultural Studies of Traits

Compare traits across different cultures to see which are universal versus influenced by environment

Animal Studies

Examine behavior in animals to infer genetic versus environmental effects (e.g., monkeys prefer toys typically associated with their sex).

Twin Studies

Compare identical (share 100% of genes) versus fraternal twins (share ~50% of genes) to estimate genetic influence

Correlations

Statistical measure showing how strongly traits are related between relatives

Heritability

Proportion of variation in a trait attributable to genetic differences.

Longitudinal Temperament Studies

Follow children over time to see how inherited traits interact with environment.

Clinical Example

Conduct disorder linked to MAO-A gene variant + childhood maltreatment (gene × environment interaction).

Heritability of Psychological Disorders

Estimate of how much genetics contribute to disorders like schizophrenia, depression, or ADHD.

Parenting Styles

Authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, neglectful.

Parents vs. Peers

Parents influence values and early development; peers influence social behavior and attitudes.

Gender Attitudes Across/Within Cultures

Cultural norms shape gender roles differently.

Gender Schema Theory

Children learn gender roles through mental frameworks (schemas).

Social Learning Theory

Gender roles learned by observing and imitating others.

Prepared vs. Unprepared Learning

Infants are biologically prepared to learn some things (e.g., language) and not others.

Infant Preference for Faces

Babies prefer looking at faces over other objects.

Reflexes

Automatic, involuntary responses in infants (e.g., sucking, grasping).

Novel Stimuli

Babies pay more attention to new or unexpected things.

Cognition

Mental processes like thinking, memory, and problem-solving.

Schemas

Mental frameworks that organize information.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

• Sensorimotor (0–2 yrs): Learn through senses and actions; object permanence develops.

• Preoperational (2–7 yrs): Use symbols, egocentric thinking; struggle with conservation.

• Concrete Operational (7–11 yrs): Logical thinking about concrete events; understand conservation.

• Formal Operational (12+ yrs): Abstract and hypothetical thinking develops.

Assimilation vs. Accommodation

Assimilation = fitting new info into existing schemas; Accommodation = changing schemas for new info.

Object Permanence

Understanding that objects exist even when not seen.

Conservation

Quantity stays the same despite changes in shape/appearance.

Egocentricity

Difficulty seeing the world from another’s perspective.

Stochastic Model of Change

Development includes random, probabilistic events.

Person-Environment Fit Theory

Development is influenced by how well individuals match their environments.

Sibling Theories

Explanations for differences among siblings include birth order, parental treatment, genetics, and peer influence.

Freud’s Psychosexual Theory

Personality develops through childhood stages centered on erogenous zones.

Erikson’s 8 Stages of Development

Psychosocial stages, e.g., trust vs. mistrust, identity vs. role confusion.

Harlow’s Monkey Studies

Showed attachment forms from comfort, not just nourishment.

Strange Situation Studies

Assesses infant attachment by observing responses to caregiver separation and reunion.

Attachment Styles

• Secure: Confident and explores, distressed when caregiver leaves.

• Avoidant: Avoids or ignores caregiver.

• Ambivalent: Anxious, clings, difficult to soothe.

• Disorganized: Confused, inconsistent behaviors toward caregiver.

Heinz Dilemma

Used by Kohlberg to study moral reasoning.

Kohlberg’s 3 Levels of Moral Development

• Pre-conventional: Morality based on reward/punishment.

• Conventional: Morality based on social rules/approval.

• Post-Conventional: Morality based on ethical principles.

Carol Gilligan’s Response

Critiques Kohlberg; women may emphasize care and relationships in moral reasoning.

Stroop Test

Shows automatic/non-conscious processes interfere with controlled tasks.

Freud’s Iceberg Model

Conscious mind is small; unconscious drives behavior.

Experimental Example

Thinking about ethical/unethical actions can reveal unconscious influence.

Meditation

• Increases focus, reduces stress, changes brain activity.

• Example: Sitting with thoughts vs. shocking self → mindfulness improves tolerance.

Sleep

• Stages: NREM 1–3 (light → deep), REM (dreaming).

• Disorders: Insomnia, sleep apnea, narcolepsy.

• Functions: Restores body, consolidates memory, regulates mood.

Theories of Dreaming

• Information Processing: Dreams help sort memories.

• Random Firing/Activation Synthesis: Brain creates narrative from random signals.

• Freud: Dreams reveal unconscious desires.

Manifest vs. Latent Content

Manifest = story of dream; Latent = hidden meaning.

Lucid Dreaming

Awareness and control during dream.

Hypnosis

Dissociation: Split in awareness (e.g., hidden observer).

Modern Perspective

Consciousness is continuous, not all controlled.

Implicit Social Cognition

Automatic attitudes, stereotypes, or self-evaluations.

Implicit Association Test (IAT)

Measures automatic preferences or biases.

Classical Conditioning

Learning by association.

UCS (Unconditioned Stimulus)

Naturally triggers response.

UCR (Unconditioned Response)

Natural response to UCS.

CS (Conditioned Stimulus)

Learned trigger.

CR (Conditioned Response)

Learned response to CS.

Acquisition

Initial learning of association.

Extinction

Decrease of learned response.

Spontaneous Recovery

Reappearance of extinct response.

Generalization

Responding similarly to similar stimuli.

Discrimination

Distinguishing between similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on consequences.

Positive Reinforcement

Add desirable stimulus to increase behavior.

Negative Reinforcement

Remove unpleasant stimulus to increase behavior.

Positive Punishment

Add unpleasant stimulus to decrease behavior.

Negative Punishment

Remove pleasant stimulus to decrease behavior

Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforce every time.

Partial Reinforcement

Reinforce only some responses (fixed/variable).

Problems with Learning Theory

Cognition can interfere; learning is not purely associative.

Tolman’s Latent Learning

Rats learned maze without reinforcement; learning can occur without immediate reward.

Bandura’s Bobo Doll Study

Children imitate aggressive behavior seen in adults.

Mirror Neurons

Brain cells that fire when observing and performing actions.

Attention / Retention / Reproduction / Motivation

Key steps for observational learning.

Motivation

Internal processes that initiate, sustain, and direct behavior.