britain 1625-1701

Opposition to Charles I in 1625

Parliament criticised Charles' marriage to Catholic Henrietta Maria and refused to grant Tonnage and Poundage for life, due to fears of absolutism and Catholic influence.

1628 Petition of Right

Charles' use of forced loans and imprisonment without trial led Parliament to demand legal limits; Charles initially accepted but later ignored it, worsening distrust.

1629 dissolution of Parliament

Marked the beginning of the 11-year Personal Rule; Charles committed to governing without parliamentary consent, contributing to rising resentment.

Funding during Personal Rule (1629-40)

Revived outdated taxes like Ship Money (levied inland from 1635); exploited feudal dues and monopolies; seen as taxation without consent.

Opposition to Ship Money

John Hampden's 1637 case symbolised elite resistance; the tax was seen as arbitrary and illegal, especially without Parliament's approval.

Religious policy during Personal Rule

Laud's Arminian reforms imposed uniformity, altar rails, and vestments; viewed as 'popish'; increased tensions with Puritans and Scots.

Scottish Prayer Book Crisis (1637)

Imposed Anglican-style liturgy on Presbyterian Scotland; riots erupted in Edinburgh; led to Bishops' Wars and Charles' military failure.

Short Parliament (1640)

Charles dissolved it after 3 weeks when MPs demanded redress of grievances before funding war against Scotland.

Achievements of the Long Parliament (1640-42)

Abolished prerogative courts (e.g., Star Chamber); passed Triennial Act; impeached Strafford and Laud; reduced royal power.

Outbreak of the Civil War in 1642

Charles' attempted arrest of 5 MPs; Grand Remonstrance revealed deep divisions; mistrust and mobilisation on both sides led to conflict.

Execution of Charles I in 1649

Charles' secret negotiations during the war, refusal to compromise, and defeat in the Second Civil War led to Pride's Purge and his trial for treason.

Forms of government after 1649

Commonwealth (1649-53); Barebone's Parliament (1653); Protectorate under Cromwell (1653-58); military rule under Major-Generals (1655-57).

Unpopularity of the Rump Parliament

Seen as self-serving and slow to reform; heavy taxation for army; failed to broaden support beyond radicals.

Cromwell dissolving the Rump in 1653

Frustration with lack of reform; fear that it would entrench itself in power; desire for a 'godly reformation'.

Instrument of Government (1653)

First written constitution; gave Cromwell the role of Lord Protector; attempted balance between executive and Parliament.

Failure of the Protectorate

The Protectorate failed to provide stability.

Frequent dissolution of parliaments

Conflicts with Army; religious toleration alienated conservatives.

Significance of the Major-Generals (1655-57)

Attempted moral reform; military rule provoked resentment, especially among gentry.

Cromwell's refusal of the crown in 1657

Opposition from Army; fear of alienating republicans and God's disapproval; instead remained Lord Protector.

Collapse of Republican rule after Cromwell's death

Richard Cromwell lacked authority; Army and Parliament clashed; General Monck restored monarchy to prevent further chaos.

Declaration of Breda (1660)

Promised general pardon, religious toleration, and Army pay; helped secure Charles II's restoration.

Cavalier Parliament (1661-64)

Passed the Clarendon Code: Corporation Act, Act of Uniformity, Conventicle Act, and Five Mile Act—restricted dissenters.

Causes of political instability in the 1670s-80s

Charles II's pro-Catholic policies; Treaty of Dover (1670); suspending anti-Catholic laws; James' open Catholicism.

Popish Plot (1678)

Fabricated Catholic conspiracy by Titus Oates; led to executions and increased anti-Catholic hysteria.

Exclusion Crisis (1679-81)

Attempt to exclude James, Duke of York, from succession due to his Catholicism; led to rise of Whigs and Tories.

Charles II's control after 1681

Ruled without Parliament; used loyalist Tory support; manipulated borough charters to favour Crown candidates.

James II's reign (1685-88)

Issued Declaration of Indulgence (1687); appointed Catholics to key posts; imprisoned bishops; birth of Catholic son in 1688 raised fears of dynastic Catholic rule.

Glorious Revolution (1688-89)

William of Orange invited by Parliament; James II fled; Bill of Rights established constitutional monarchy.

Laud's enforcement of religious uniformity

Introduced Arminian changes (beauty of holiness); imposed via Court of High Commission; punished dissent harshly (e.g., Prynne).

Parliament's reshaping of the Church in the 1640s

Abolished bishops (1646); Westminster Assembly attempted Presbyterian settlement; tolerated radical sects under Cromwell.

Impact of religious radicalism during the Interregnum

Growth of sects (Quakers, Fifth Monarchists); challenged authority of established church and promoted egalitarian ideas.

Restoration Settlement's approach to religion

Restored bishops and Anglicanism (Act of Uniformity 1662); imposed conformity through Clarendon Code.

Charles II's treatment of dissenters

Tried to suspend laws with Declaration of Indulgence (1672); forced to withdraw due to Parliament's opposition.

Status of Catholics from 1660-88

Legally excluded; frequent scapegoats (e.g. Popish Plot); tolerated only under James II, whose favouritism led to backlash.

Population Growth in England (1625-88)

Higher birth rates, lower mortality, immigration; London's population rose from 200,000 (1600) to 500,000 (1700).

Urbanisation Effects

Growth of towns led to social mobility, increase in poverty; rise in crime and need for poor relief.

Poor Laws

1601 Poor Law continued; overseers collected local taxes; supported deserving poor but punished vagrants.

Social Structure Changes (1625-88)

Gentry gained local influence; merchants grew in power due to trade; nobility lost political dominance.

Impact of Religious Change on Women

Radical sects like Quakers promoted female preachers; general legal and social status remained limited.

Levellers' Ideas

Universal male suffrage, equality before the law, religious freedom; opposed by Cromwell.

Views of Thomas Hobbes

Supported absolute rule to prevent chaos; argued in Leviathan (1651) for social contract and sovereign authority.

Locke's Key Arguments

Right to life, liberty, and property; rulers rule by consent; justified resistance to tyranny (Two Treatises of Government, 1689).

Royal Society's Contribution

Promoted scientific experimentation; founded 1660; symbolised Enlightenment values of observation and reason.

Agricultural Changes

Enclosure increased productivity; crop rotation improved yields; investment by gentry and commercial landlords.

Changes in Cloth Trade

Decline of traditional woollen cloth; rise of 'new draperies' (lighter fabrics); Dutch and Huguenot refugees brought skills.

Importance of London to Economy

Centre of trade, finance, and industry; drew rural labour; hub of domestic and overseas markets.

Role of Banking and Insurance

Goldsmith bankers provided credit; Lloyd's coffee house became insurance hub; Bank of England (1694) institutionalised finance.

Impact of Navigation Acts

1651 & 1660 Acts promoted English shipping; excluded Dutch merchants; boosted empire and trade revenue.

Role of East India Company

Gained trade dominance in Asia; supported by state; key player in spices, textiles, and tea trade.

Development of Triangular Trade

England exported goods to Africa, traded for slaves, sent slaves to Americas; brought sugar, tobacco back to England.

Principles of the 1689 Bill of Rights

No royal interference in laws; free elections; no standing army without Parliament; end of divine right monarchy.

Toleration Act of 1689

Allowed dissenters to worship freely (with restrictions); excluded Catholics; Anglican Church retained privileges.

Triennial Act (1694)

Forced general elections every 3 years; created regular parliamentary sessions and greater accountability.

William III's Wars and Financial Revolution

War with France (Nine Years War) required new revenue; led to creation of Bank of England and national debt (1694).