AP Psychology Unit 3

Nature vs Nurture

Maturation versus experiences

Continuity vs Discontinuity

Is development gradual or divided into discrete stages?

Stability vs Change

Are personality trait present during infancy likely to last throughout the life span?

Longitudinal Studies

Studies and follows the same group for a long time, usually months to years; it is costly and might lose people who originally studied

Cross-sectional studies

Study different groups of people from various age groups; fast but prone to cohort effect =세대차이

Teratogen

Agents like toxins, chemicals, viruses that can reach embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm; ex. alcohol, smoking, cocaine

Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)

Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by pregnant woman’s heavy drinking

Rooting

Type of innate reflex; turning head when touched on the cheek and putting stimulus into the mouth

Swallowing

Type of innate reflex; placing liquid in baby’s mouth will elicit this

Babinski

Type of innate reflex; when foot is stroked, baby will spread the toes

Moro/Startle

Type of reflex/ babies arch their back, fling their limbs out and retract them

Stages of Cognitive Development (Jean Piaget)

Intelligence grows and develops through 4 stages: sensorimotor → preoperational →concrete operational → formal operational

Assimilation

We fit new information into existing patterns

Accomodation

Modifying schema to fit new information

Sensorimotor Stage

Children experience the world through their senses and actions. They lack object permanence BUT later develop it; they have stranger anxiety (birth~2yrs)

Preoperational Stage

Children represent things with words and images; intuitive than logical reasoning; ecocentrism in the beginning BUT solved; pretend play, ability to engage in symbolic thought (2~7yrs)

Concrete Operational Stage

Children think logically about concrete events; develop concept of conservation, which 2 equal quantities remain equal even though their forms are rearranged (ex. water) (7~11yrs)

Formal Operational Stage

Children practice abstract reasoning and achieve meta-cognition, ability to logically think about hypothetical situations and evaluate 3rd person pov (12~adult)

Information Process Model

Continuous model for cognitive development, where abilities to memorize, interpret, and perceive develop gradually as we age

Socio-cultural theory and ZPD (Lev Vygotsky)

Theory that development is continuous and proceeds with internalization, absorbing info from specific social environmental context. The mentors (= scaffold) serve important role

Zone of Proximal Development (JPD)

Range between level at which children can solve problem independently and with help from mentors/scaffold

Moral Development (Lawrence Kohlberg)

Moral difference refers to telling the difference between right and wrong & control impulses; 3 stages: pre-conventional → conventional → post-conventional

Pre-conventional

They do things to avoid punishment or to further their self-interests (before 9)

Conventional

People try to live up to others’ expectations or abide by laws and policies (early adult)

Post-conventional

People act in a manner in that promotes the society’s welfare or promotes justice and prevents self-condemnation

Carol Gilligan

She criticized Kohlberg’s moral development theory being gender-biased

Imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)

A rapid, seemingly irreversible form of attachment during critical period where animals form a strong bond with the first moving object they see

Monkey Experiment (Harry Harlow)

Experiment that demonstrates the importance of physical comfort (emotional attachment) and touch in development

Strange Situations Experiment (Mary Ainsworth)

Experiment that put babies in novel situations and observing their reactions which is categorized into 3: secure, insecure-anxious-avoidant, insecure-anxious-ambivalent

Secure

When caregiver returned, the child seeks comfort

Insecure-Anxious-Avoidant

The child ignores the caregiver when left and returned

Insecure-Anxious-Ambivalent

The child was upset when caregiver left, but ignored the caregiver even after returned

Temperament

Baby’s natural predisposition to show a particular period in particular situation 가지고 태어난 성질

Parenting styles (Diana Baumrind)

Authoritarian, authoritative, permissive

Authoritarian parenting

Parents set strict rules and guidelines and punish wrongdoing → children distrust others and might be withdrawn

Authoritative parenting

Parents set limits but explain reasoning behind rules and make exceptions when appropriate; use reward well → responsible and emotional stable children

Permissive parenting

Parents do NOT set clear guidelines. The rules are not consistent → children have emotional problems and are dependent

Psychosocial development theory (Erik Erikson)

Theory that we develop through 8 stages and at each stage, we encounter crisis. How each crisis is resolved has long-lasting implications for rest of life

Trust vs Mistrust

If needs are dependably met, infants develop sense of basic trust 우는 애기 돌봐줌 → 신뢰 ↑

Autonomy vs Shame and Doubt

If toddlers learn to control their will, they develop healthy habits and can control their emotional reactions in the future; saying “No!”

Initiative vs guilt

Preschoolers ask many questions “Why?” and if they’re scolded for that, they become guilty and avoid asking questions 질문 받아줌 → initiate things ↑

Industry vs inferiority

Children first start formal education and starts competition and get compared; pleasure of applying themselves to task OR feel inferior

Identity vs Role confusion

Teenagers work at refining their sense of self by testing roles and integrating them to form a single identity

Intimacy vs Isolation

Young adults seek for stable relationships they can commit to; if not, they may become self-absorbed and isolated

Generativity vs Stagnation

Middle-aged adults try to give back to society and guide members from the next generation; if they feel unwelcomed, they only care about themselves

Integrity vs Despair

Old adults reflect upon their lives; develop integrity if their life was meaningful OR disappointment otherwise

Stages of facing death (Elizabeth Kubler Ross)

Denial, anger, bargain, depression, acceptance

Gender roles

Societal expectations of how each gender should act

Gender identity

Sense of being each gender that is linked to our physiology

Androgyny

Having both masculine and feminine traits when desirable

Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

People and animals can learn to associate neural stimulus (bell sound) with stimuli that produce reflexive responses (food) and will learn to respond similarly to new stimulus as they did to the old one (salivate)

Neural stimulus (NS)

Sound of the bell

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Food

Unconditioned response (UR)

Salivate

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

Sound of the bell

Conditioned response (CR)

Salivate

Acquisition

Once animals respond to the CS without presentation of US

Forward (delayed)

Most effective order of classical conditioning; present CS first and then introduce US, while CS is still evident

Backward

Most ineffective order of classical conditioning; present US first and then CS

Trace

Order of classical conditioning by presenting CS, followed by short break, then US

Extinction

Unlearning a behavior; CS no longer elicits CR; occurs when repeatedly presenting CS without US, breaking the association

Spontaneous Recovery

After conditioned response has been extinct for a long time, the response briefly reappears upon presentation of CS

Generalization

Responding to similar CS (ex. phone ring sound lead to salivation)

Discrimination

Being able to tell the difference between various stimuli (ex. 벨소리와 전화소리 구분)

Aversive conditioning

Being conditioned to have a negative response, usually used to break bad habit

Second/ High order conditioning

Once CS elicits CR, it is possible briefly to use that CS as US to condition a response to a new stimulus

Biology and classical conditioning

Research suggests that animals and humans are biologically prepared to make certain connections more easily than others

Learned Taste Aversion

Animals and humans are biologically prepared to associate strange tastes with feeling of sickness

Garcia Effect (John Garcia)

Experiment to test biological preparedness, illustrating how rats more readily learned to make certain associations than others

Operant Conditioning

Learning based on association of consequence with one’s behavior

Law of Effect/ Instrumental Learning (Edward Thorndike)

If the consequences of the behavior are pleasant, the likelihood of the behavior will increase. If unpleasant, the likelihood decreases.

B.F. Skinner

Founder of the term “operant conditioning”

Reinforcer

Stimulus which elicits the behavior: primary (naturally reinforcing like food) & secondary (learned to be appreciated like money)

Reinforcement

Increases the probability that the behavior will be repeated whether or not it’s positive or negative

Positive reinforcement

Adding something pleasant which increases the likelihood of the behavior (ex. study → 연예인 짜잔!)

Negative reinforcement

Removing something negative which increases the likelihood of the behavior (ex. study → remove cockroaches)

Punishment

A behavior is followed by something unpleasant so that the likelihood of the behavior decreases

Positive Punishment

Adding something unpleasant (ex. study → cockroach 짜잔)

Negative Punishment/Omission Training

Removing something positive which decreases the likelihood of the behavior

Learned helplessness

Learner feels that it is impossible to escape a punishment, and thus feels that the person is helpless in ALL similar situations

Shaping

It reinforces every step which leads to the desired action (ex. backflip; something difficult and complex)that

Chaining

Being rewarded after completion of a number of responses successively

Continuous Reinforcement

ALL correct responses are rewarded; learn the behavior fastest but also extinguishes the fastest = easy learn → easy forget

Partial/Intermittent Reinforcement

Rewarding some, not all correct responses; takes longer to learn behavior, but extinguish slowly

Ratio Reinforcement

Based upon the number of responses (ex. number of situps)

Fixed ratio reinforcement

Occurs after a predetermined set of responses (ex. after 5 situps)

Variable ratio reinforcement

Occurs after an unpredictable set of responses (ex. after (?) situps) → second hardest to learn and forget

Interval Reinforcement

Based on responses made within a certain time period (ex. how long I did situp)

Fixed interval reinforcement

Occurs after a predetermined time has elapsed (ex. every 2 weeks)

Variable interval reinforcement

Occurs after an unpredictable time has elapsed (ex. after (?) weeks) → hardest to learn & forget

Instinctive drift

Animals will NOT perform certain behaviors which go against their natural inclination

Behavioral psychologists

Learning occurs without thought and we only believe in things that can be seen

Cognitive theorists

Our mind and thought exists and we are well aware and expect that responses are connected to consequences

Insight Learning (Wolfgang Kohler)

Insight learning occurs when you suddenly realize how to solve a problem

Latent Learning (Tolman)

Learning that occurs but is NOT apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it (ex. rats & maze experiment)

Observational Learning/ Modeling (Albert Bandura)

Learning by observing others (ex. Bobo-doll experiment)

Phoneme

Smallest units of sound (ex. C/A/T)

Morpheme

Smallest unit of meaningful sound; NOT necessarily a word (ex. pre/pro)

Semantics

Set of rules that enables us to derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences

Syntax

Rules that regulate the order of words to form sensible sentences