5. the national question and its solution 1848-1871

recap: • Memories and the consequences of the event • There was a potential for change • Almost all German states had some type of constitutional parliament • Push the question of national unification - politics, long term effect

What does the proclamation of the German Empire symbolize?

It symbolizes success and glory, depicting Bismarck's powerful role in German unification as the 'German emperor', representing unity over all German territories.

What role did Bismarck play in the proclamation?

Bismarck's role is exemplified as a central figure to whom attention is drawn; he pushed for the title 'German emperor' and accepted the flag colors of black, white, and red, distinguishing the new state from revolutionary symbols.

What was the political situation of independent German states before unification?

Prior to unification, the German territories were organized under the Holy Roman Empire, and by 1850, a German Confederation was established but did not achieve true nation-state status.

Who was crowned king of Prussia and when?

King Wilhelm I of Prussia was crowned on October 18, 1861, in Königsberg, but was initially hesitant about the crown due to public sentiment. "Crown from the gutter". - believed it came democratically, only accepted if offered by the German princes.

What was the significance of the 'Iron and Blood' policy?

Bismarck used the 'Iron and Blood' policy to emphasize military strength in securing Prussia’s dominant role and pushing for German unification, particularly through wars.

Dano-Prussian War (1864).

This conflict was fought over control of the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein, ending with the Treaty of Vienna, where Denmark ceded the territories to Prussia and Austria. - Prussia is growing into a militaristic power.

What was the outcome of the Austro-Prussian War (1866)?

Prussia annexed several territories and dissolved the German Confederation, replacing it with the North German Confederation, which was under Prussian governance.

What events led to the Franco-Prussian War (1870)?

The war was sparked by a succession dispute over the Spanish throne, escalating tensions between Prussia and France, ultimately leading to Prussia's victory. resulting in the exclusion of Austria from German affairs and the establishment of Prussian dominance in Germany. Led by Otto von Bismarck

What was the significance of the proclamation as German Emperor in 1871?

Wilhelm I was proclaimed German Emperor on January 18, 1871, in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles, symbolizing the triumph over France and the establishment of a cohesive German Empire.

• Peace talks with France - Treaty of Frankfurt

• 5 Billion gold Francs indemnity - helps Prussian economy rise up

• Annex of French frontier territories of Alsace and Lorraine

How was the new German Empire structured politically?

The Empire consisted of 25 constituent states with some autonomy and a Reichstag elected by men, although power remained concentrated with the emperor.

• Foreign policy, war, national areas was by the parliament

• Reichstag - elected by men (no three tier system Prussia had before over what wealth you had)

  • Had very little actual power; few people voted first election (possible 15%)

  • No salary for those who worked in the parliament

  • Most power was in the hands of the emperor

  • BUT Universal manhood is a huge step in politics

  • People being able to vote and participate in politics is a difference

  • National unification because it came from the above by Bismark to retain Prussian power

    • Didn’t happen from below which ordinary people wanted

  • Being born from blood and iron - Sonderweg path which leads to fascism makes more sense as there was no democratic revolution

• Federal council Bundesrat - delegates from all separate states

  • Prussia could veto power

What was the impact of regionalism on national identity post-1871?

Post-unification, regional identities remained strong, but there was a growing alignment with nationalist sentiment, despite divisions among different territories.

• Right liberals aligned with Bismarck; Left ones were not pleased by the new empire

• New territories that joined did not have the most positive idea about being in the new emperor

• Those who fought against the German empire also did not feel the best way

• Was structured Protestant, not Catholic

• 7% popualtion didn’t speak German - does that not make them not German?

• Deep division within the nation

• External + internal enemies

• Kulturkampf (culture wars) - what is German? Many different identities, nationalities

• Antisocialism

• Antisemitism

• Voelkisch racism

What were Bismarck's views on socialism and anti-Semitism?

Bismarck faced internal challenges such as socialism and anti-Semitism, reflecting the diverse identities and divisions within the German nation post-unification.

How did the new German Empire portray Bismarck?

Bismarck was celebrated as a unifying hero, with statues commemorating his role in German unification, despite the complexities of his policies and their repercussions.

Power from Above (Prussia/Austria)

This concept emphasizes the authority of monarchs, the Prussian army, and conservative elites, highlighting their reliance on military force or diplomacy to maintain autocratic control and territorial power in the German Confederation.

Power from Below (Liberal Nationalism)

This movement reflects the aspirations of the German people, intellectuals, and liberal ideologies that emerged in 1848, advocating for a unified, democratic German nation-state with a constitution and parliament, continuing despite previous failures.

The 1861 Context

By this time, Prussia was becoming a dominant force under Otto von Bismarck, seeking unification on its own terms (Kleindeutsches Reich) while aiming to exclude Austria from influence.

Steps leading to the creation of the German Empire (1871) - historian perspective

Historian: Stefan Berger
Work: Germany: A New Social and Economic History
Argument:

• Economic integration through the Zollverein was a key step toward unification.

• It removed internal tariffs and strengthened economic ties between German states.

• Austria’s exclusion weakened its influence and strengthened Prussian leadership in German affairs.

Key idea: Economic unity under Prussia laid the groundwork for political unity.

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Historian: Siegfried Weichlein
Work: The Oxford Handbook of Modern German History
Argument:

• German unification was achieved through war and diplomacy under Prussia.

• Key wars orchestrated by Otto von Bismarck:

  • Second Schleswig War

  • Austro-Prussian War

  • Franco-Prussian War

• These conflicts mobilised nationalism and brought the German states together under Prussia.

Key idea: War created the political conditions for unification.

Was Germany truly unified in 1871? - historians perspective

Historian: Stefan Berger
Work: Germany: A New Social and Economic History
Argument:

• Germany was territorially unified but not politically liberal.

• The empire was dominated by Prussian monarchy and elites.

• The constitution created institutions like the Reichstag, but real power rested with the Kaiser and Chancellor.

Key idea: Unification occurred “from above” rather than through democratic nationalism.

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Historian: Siegfried Weichlein
Argument:

• The empire was a federal but Prussian-dominated state.

• Individual states kept local governments, but Prussia remained the political centre.

• Military and foreign policy remained under the control of Prussian elites and the Kaiser.

Key idea: Germany was unified structurally but remained politically hierarchical.

Role of nationalism in creating and maintaining the German state - historians perspective

Historian: Stefan Berger
Argument:

• Nationalism provided legitimacy for the new German Empire.

• Prussian elites used national identity to encourage loyalty to the state.

• National identity was defined in ethnic and cultural terms, often excluding minorities such as Poles and Jews.

Key idea: Nationalism helped consolidate the empire but also created exclusionary identities.

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Historian: Siegfried Weichlein
Argument:

• Wars against Denmark, Austria, and France mobilised popular nationalist sentiment.

• After unification, nationalism was used to reinforce the authority of the empire and identify internal “enemies” such as Catholics and socialists.

Key idea: Nationalism was both a tool for unification and for maintaining political control.

Could Austria have unified Germany? - historians perspective

Historian: Stefan Berger
Argument:

• Austrian leadership of German unification was unrealistic.

• The Habsburg Empire ruled over many non-German peoples, making it difficult to represent a purely German nation.

• Austria’s defeat in the Austro-Prussian War ended the possibility of a Großdeutsch (Greater Germany)solution.

Key idea: Prussian-led “Kleindeutsch” unification became the only viable option.

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Historian: Siegfried Weichlein
Argument:

• Austria’s absolutist political system and multinational empire prevented it from leading a German nation-state.

• Prussia’s constitutional institutions and political structure made it a more plausible centre for German unity.

Key idea: Political structures favoured Prussia over Austria.

Role of liberals in unification - historians perspective

Historian: Stefan Berger
Argument:

• Liberals initially opposed Bismarck but later supported him after military victories.

• Many believed national unity was more important than liberal constitutional principles.

• They hoped the empire could later be liberalised from within. Key idea: Liberals compromised their ideals to achieve national unity.

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Historian: Siegfried Weichlein
Argument:

• National Liberals cooperated with Bismarck, particularly after the Indemnity Bill of 1866, which legalised his unconstitutional actions.

• After unification they played a major role in shaping legal and economic legislation within the Reichstag.

Key idea: Liberals helped build the institutions of the empire despite its authoritarian foundations.

role/importance of bismark - historians perspective

Historian: Stefan Berger
Argument:

• Bismarck was central to unification but not the sole cause.

• He used wars and diplomacy to achieve a Kleindeutsch German Empire under Prussia.

• However, deeper forces already existed: economic integration, nationalism, and Austrian decline.

Key idea: Bismarck was an opportunist who exploited existing historical developments.

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Flashcard 12

Historian: Stefan Berger
Quote/Interpretation:

• Bismarck was a “political opportunist of genius who rode the waves of history rather than creating them.”

Key idea: Unification would likely have occurred eventually, but in a different form.

Political cartoons (1860s Prussia)

Bismark:

• Cartoons reveal that Bismarck was controversial and unpopular before military success.

• Many liberals criticised his authoritarian methods and his “blood and iron” approach to politics.

• They reflect fears that Bismarck’s policies would undermine parliamentary liberalism in Prussia.

• Later military victories transformed his reputation, turning him into a national hero of German unification.

Political cartoons on National Liberals (1866–1871)

• Cartoons criticise National Liberals for abandoning their earlier ideals.

• After Prussia’s victories, many liberals supported Bismarck despite his authoritarian policies.

• This shows the prioritisation of national unity over liberal constitutional principles.