LEADERSHIP EXAM 1

Personal Attitudes

Represent our feelings or opinions about people, places, and objects

Components of an Attitude

Cognitive = Evaluation

Affective = Feeling

Behavioral = Action

Cognitive Dissonance

Brain telling you, "Hey, something here doesn't add up!" and trying to make things feel right again.

Belief 1: "I want to be healthy."

Belief 2: "I love eating chocolate cake every day."

Dissonance: Feeling guilty or uneasy about eating the cake.

Resolution: You might say, "It's okay, I'll exercise tomorrow," to make the thoughts match.

Reduce Cognitive Dissonance by...

Changing attitudes, behaviors, or both

Belittle the importance of the inconsistent behavior

Find consonant elements that outweigh dissonant ones

Key Workplace Attitudes

Organization Commitment

Employee Engagement

Perceived Organizational Support

Job Satisfaction

Job Satisfaction

Extent to which an individual likes his/her job

Employee Engagement

Extent to which employees give it their all to their work roles

Organizational Commitment

Extent to which an employee identifies with an organization and is committed to its goals

Perceived Organizational Support

Extent to which employees believe that the organization values their contributions and genuinely cares about their well-being

Organizational Commitment Leads To...

- Greater employee Retention

- Greater motivation in pursuit of organizational goals

Employees Engagement Leads To...

- Increased customer loyalty/satisfaction

- Increased Employee Performance

- Increased employee well-being

- Financial Performance

Perceived Organization Support Leads To...

- Increased organizational commitment

- Job satisfaction

- Organizational citizenship behavior

- Task performance

- Lower turnover

Counterproductive Work Behaviors

Actions that actively damage the organization, including stealing, behaving aggressively toward coworkers, or being late or absent

Person-Job Fit Theory

Purposes that the fit between personality type and occupational environment determines satisfaction and turnover

Five Factor Model**

Openness to Experience

Neuroticism

Conscientiousness

Extraversion

Agreeableness

Openness

People who like to experience new things, learn, creative

POSITIVE: Eager to entertain alternative points of view, learn new information, skills

NEGATIVE: Indecisive as a decision maker

Conscientiousness

Organized, Disciple, Hardworking, Punctual

POSITIVE: Organized, good planner

NEGATIVE: May lack spontaneity, flexibility, change orientation

( #1 Personality Predictor of Job Performance )

High Conscientiousness

Struggle being a manager bc if lower level people performance is not up to standards you will be upset

( MICRO MANAGER )

Extraversion

Life of the party, optimistic, affectionate

Predicts performance on jobs involving a social component

POSITIVE: Influential, likeable

NEGATIVE: May generate status conflict with 2 similar attributes

Agreeableness

People pleasers, forgiving, gullible, helpful

POSTIVE: Good relationships, higher than avg., emotional competency

NEGATIVE: Lack ability to make tough calls/decisions

Neuroticism

Anxious people & emotional

High Extraversion, Emotional Stability, & Agreeableness

Managers more likely to compete an overseas job assignment

Trait Activation Theory

Some situations, events, or interventions 'activate' a trait more than others

Locus of Control

Describes how much personal responsibility someone takes for their behavior and its consequences

External Locus of Control

- Things happen to me

- I blame others for failures

- I can't control the future

Internal Locus of Control

- I make things happen

- I can determine my future

- I accept personal responsibility for failures

External Locus of Control (WORKPLACE)

- More anxious

- Earn less, receive smaller raises

- Less motivated by incentives

Internal Locus of Control (WORKPLACE)

- Higher motivation

- Higher expectations

- Exert more effort when given difficult tasks

Dark Triad

Psychopathy

Machiavellianism

Narcissism

Machiavellianism

Tend to be manipulative of others / Use "hard" tactics to influence others

- Strong motivation to lead

- Tend to be influential/persuasive

Narcissism

Superiority / Exploitative / Crave authority

- Can lead to higher organizational creativity

- Often has strong vision formation

- Positive to CEO performance***

Psychopathy

Antisocial / Thrill-seeking / Stress immunity / Lack of concern for others

- Positive to CEO performance***

- Positive to police officer task performance***

Cognitive Ability

Ability to learn, or potential to learn, and acquire new knowledge and skill

- BEST predictors of task performance across jobs and settings

Cognitive Ability Performance --> Job Knowledge (Mediator) --> Job

Emotions

Related to a specific object or situation

More intense

Shorter duration

Can be positive/negative, mixed, past/future

Moods

Less specific

Less intense

Influenced by environment, physiology, & mental state

Attitudes

Cognitive + Affect + Behavior

Affective Events Theory

Employees react emotionally to things that happen to them at work, and this reaction influences their job performance and satisfaction

Positive Example of Affective Events Theory

A manager unexpectedly praises you in a meeting

-> Emotion: Pride

-> Behavior: You help a coworker later that day

-> Over time: You feel more satisfied and loyal to the team

Negative Example of Affective Events Theory

You get left off an important group email

-> Emotion: Frustration

-> Behavior: You disengage during a team call

-> Over time: These micro-exclusions chip away at your morale

Emotional Contagion

We can catch other people's feelings

Impacts the Level of Emotional Contagion**

Individual Factors: Self-awareness / Stress

Interpersonal Factors: Cohesiveness / Interpersonal trust

Contextual Factors: Power / Status

Implications of Emotional Contagion

Groups: "What's this individual's impact on their work group?"

Customers: "What's this individual's impact on their customers?"

Culture: "What's this individual's impact on organization culture?"

Emotional Intelligence

Person's ability to perceive emotions in the self and others

Personal Competence

Self Awareness

Self Management

Social Competence

Social Awareness

Relationship Management

Perception

Cognitive process that enables us to interpret and understand our surroundings

AFFECTS ACTIONS AND DECISIONS

Attribution Theory

We judge people (including ourselves) differently depending on the meaning we attribute to their behavior

Behavioral Causes

Internal: Within the person (Dispositional)

External: From the outside (Situational)

Stable: Due to permanent factors

Unstable: Due to temporary factors

Self-Serving Bias

When evaluating OURSELVES, we tend to:

- Attribute SUCCESS to INTERNAL factors

- Attribute FAILURE to EXTERNAL factors

"It was bad luck"

Unstable / External

= FAILURE

"I worked hard"

Unstable / Internal

= SUCCESS

"I'm smart"

Stable / Internal

= SUCCESS

"That test was hard"

Stable / External

= FAILURE

Fundamental Attribution Error

When evaluating OTHERS, we tend to:

- Attribute SUCCESS to EXTERNAL factors

- Attribute FAILURE to INTERNAL factors

( OPPOSITE of self-serving bias )

"That test was easy"

Stable / External

= SUCCESS

"They were lucky"

Unstable / External

= SUCCESS

"They're lazy"

Unstable / Internal

= FAILURE

"They're not smart"

Stable / Internal

= FAILURE

Distinctiveness

"Is this common behavior for this person across many circumstances?"

"Do they act this way ALL the time?"

Consensus

"Do other people react this way to this situation?"

Consistency

"Does this person act the same way in this situation all the time?"

For more accurate perceptions...

Develop Empathy!

- Insight

- Understanding

- Active listening

Social Identity Theory

Being part of groups helps us shape who we are and how we feel about ourselves

We see the group to which we belong (in-group) as being different from others (out-group)

Affinity Bias AKA "In-group bias"

Tendency to trust/preference for people like ourselves

People extend more trust, positive regard, cooperation, and empathy to INGROUP members compared to outgroup members

Preference is largely INSTICTIVE and UNCONSCIOUS

Neuroscience of Expectations

When we expect something and don't get it, dopamine level drop.

Decrease in dopamine generates a mild threat response

Importance of Selection for Organization

- Aligns with strategy to support organizational goals

- Impacts company culture and reputation

- Reduces cost associated with turnover, training, and poor performance

Selection seeks correlation between...

Predictive Data (X):

Cognitive ability tests, personality tests, knowledge tests, interviews, work simulations

Criterion Data (Y):

Employee Performance Measurement

( Applicant's results on selection measures ) --> ( Job Performance )

Correlation

+1 = Perfect Positive Correlation

-1 = Perfect Negative Correlation

0 = No Correlation

+0.9 / -0.9

Strong Positive/Negative Correlation

+0.5 / -0.5

Moderate Positive/Negative Correlation

+0.2 / -0.2

Weak Positive/Negative Correlation

Which test would you choose? (-0.8, -0.5)

Would you take people who scored highest or lowest?

1. -0.8 bc stronger test

2. Lowest bc it's negative

Validity

Accuracy of a measure

Applicant Reactions

Applicant's perceptions of specific tests and the testing process in general

Selection Ratio (does it help?)

Number of hired candidates compared to the total number of candidates

Validity: Content-Related

Measure assesses job-related behaviors

"Is it actually done?"

Validity: Construct-Related

Measure assesses what it claims to measure

Intent vs. Reality

Validity: Criterion-Related

Measure's scores predict job success

Roadmap to achievement

( Predictive Method * Concurrent Method )

What makes a selection method UNRELIABLE

Random Error (noise)

Deficiency Error (missing information)

Contamination Error (extra influences)

Determining Reliability

Test-retest

Alternate or parallel form

Internal Consistency

Inter-rater

Reliable vs. Valid

Reliable: Results can be trusted "Measuring Right"

Valid: Results translate to reality "Measuring the right thing"

Integrity Test

Type of personality test designed to assess an applicant's tendency to be honest, trustworthy, and dependable

Can also be a valid measure of OVERALL JOB PERFORMANCE

Job Relatedness / Bona Fide Occupational Qualification

Employer must show that their rules/decisions are necessary for someone to perform this particular job

Seniority

How long someone has worked at a job or for a company

Components of Motivation

Intensity

Direction

Persistence

Extrinsic Motivation

"Money is the reason people work. Therefore money is the way they are motivated"

Intrinsic Motivation

"People are more motivated by internal satisfaction. Money is not a good long-term motivator"

McClelland's Theory of Needs

Need for Achievement

Need for Power

Need for Affiliation

Self Determination Theory

- Provide tangible resources, time, contacts, and coaching to improve COMPETENCE

- Empower employees and delegate meaningful assignments and tasks to enhance feelings of AUTONOMY

- Use fun and camaraderie to foster RELATEDNESS

Core Job Dimensions

Skill Variety

Task Identity

Task Significance

Autonomy

Feedback

Autonomy

The degree to which a job provides the worker freedom and independence to determine how the work gets done

Goal Setting Theory

When we set goals we typically have higher performance

Self-Efficacy Theory

An individual's belief of being capable of performing a task

Pygmalion Effect

Self-fulfilling prophecy - believing something can make it true

Organizational Justice

Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

EX: "I think this is a fair place to work"

Distributive Justice

Perceived fairness of outcome

EX: "I got the pay raise I deserved"

Procedural Justice

Perceived fairness of process used to determine outcome

EX: "I had input into the process used to give raises and was given a good explanation of why I received the raise I did"

Interactional Justice

Sensitivity to the quality of interpersonal treatment

EX: "When telling me about my raise, my supervisor was very nice and complimentary"

Validity Comparisons:**

Work sample is the MOST valid predictor for selection method

Structured interviews are MORE valid than unstructured interview

Consciousness is the MOST valuable predictor for personality tests

( takeaway for exam )

Compensation: Direct

Base Pay & Incentive Pay

-> Bonus, commission, profit, sharing, gainsharing, stock options, tips