a/p lecture exam

alveolar supply = _______ arteries - supplies O2 _______ blood which will become oxygenated in the alveoli

pulmonary, depleted

bronchial supply = _______ arteries (branches off the descending ____) - provides 02 +nourishment to the rest of lung tissue

bronchial, aorta

2 phases of ventilation

1) _______ = bringing in fresh air with O2 in it

2)______ = blowing out CO2 filled air out of lungs

inspiration, expiration

How is ventilation accomplished?

• changing the ______ of the thoracic cavity (alternating pressure) → pressure differences btwn the air in the lungs + the air in the atmosphere → alternating inspiration and expiration

capacityAir

Airflow: high pressure region → low pressure region

-For air to flow ___ the lungs : atmospheric pressure > intrapulmonary pressure

-For air to flow ___ of the lungs : intrapulmonary pressure > atmospheric pressure

into, out

Boyles Law: the pressure exerted by a fixed number of gas molecules is ______ proportional to the volume of the container

inverselyovim

moving the thoracic wall (ribs and muscles) + the _____ → change in volume of thoracic cavity → change in volume of lungs

diaphragmncrei

increased volume of thoracic cavity → increased volume of lungs → intrapulmonary pressure _____ → airflow into lungs

decreaseecrd

decrease of thoracic cavity → decreased volume of lungs → intrapulmonary pressure ______ → air flowing out of lungs (until intrapulmonary = atmospheric)

increases

During inspiration: increased volume of thoracic cavity → increased volume of lungs →intrapulmonary pressure _____ 1mm below atmospheric pressure (during quiet breathing)

lowered

two ways to increase the volume of thoracic cavity:

1. diaphragm ______ → diaphragm flattening → increased vertical diameter of thoracic cavity (____ breathing)

contracting, quiet

two ways to increase the volume of thoracic cavity:

2. Rib _____ (via extrinsic intercostal muscle contraction) → increased lateral A-P diameter (_____ inspiration)

elevation, forced

Note: inspiration is “____” because it involves muscle contraction

active

Expiration:

-decreased volume of thoracic cavity → decreased volume of lungs → _____ pulmonary pressure (1mm during ____ breathing) over atmospheric pressure

increased, quiet

How to decrease volume of thoracic cavity:

• _____ processes (no muscle contraction) = “elastic _____” of the lungs, thoracic wall, and abdominal structures returns everything to resting position (quiet breathing)

passive, recoil

How to decrease volume of thoracic cavity:

• Muscle contraction (anterior abdominal, scalene, intrinsic intercostals) forces the diaphragm upward (_____ expiration)

forced

_____pulmonary pressure : difference between intrapulmonary and intrapleural pressures. keeps lungs from ______

-note: intrapleural pressure always lower than alveolar pressure

trans, collapsingo

other factors that influence pulmonary airflow

1. Surface tension: = the molecular attraction between the water molecules coating the alveolus lumen → the tendency of the fluid lining the alveoli to minimize its surface area → reduction of alveolar size → tendency for _____ ____ (must be overcome for air to enter)

alveolar collapse

1) surface tension: Pulmonary surfactant = a phospholipoprotein (detergent like) complex produced by alveolar ____ __ cells

-____ the surface tension of the fluid of the fluid coating the alveoli → decreased muscular effort required for lung expansion

Type 2 cells, lower

Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) = _____ membrane disease: often fatal condition in premature babies in which insufficient quantities of surfactant is produced → alveolar collapse → breathing difficulties

hyaline

other factors that influence pulmonary airflow

2) compliance of the lungs: how much effort is required to stretch lungs + chest wall (high compliance = ___ lung and chest wall expansion) (decreased in TB, edema, emphysema)

idk

other factors that influence pulmonary airflow

3) Airway Resistance: volume of air flowing in a given time between the atmosphere + alveoli is influenced by the pressure that moved the air through the respiratory passageways + by the resistance the air as it flows through the passageways. ____ = pressure/ resistance

flow

other factors that influence pulmonary airflow

3) Airway Resistance: resistance = passageway ______ (medium bronchioles), diameter decreases, resistance _____

diameter, increases-

_____ inspiration = resistance of respiratory passageways is slight; the pressure difference between the atmosphere + alveoli is only about 1mm Hg but a substantial airflow still occurs (= about ___ ml of air enters lung per breath)

quiet, 500

-certain circumstances (constriction of passageways or fluid/mucus accumulation in passageways) → ______ resistance → airflow impeded, therefore must increase the pressure difference between the atmosphere + alveoli to maintain airflow (via increased respiratory muscle _____)

increased, contraction

Causes of respiratory passageway sm. muscle contraction + increased mucus secretion = parasympathetic ANS, histamine, +leukotrienes, airborne irritants, (______ (symp. NS) → sm muscle relaxation

epinephrine

what kind of machine measures lung volume + capacity

spirometer

Anatomic dead space = the remaining air-filled passageways (nose, trachea, bronchus( in which __ gas exchange occurs (estimated to be about 1ml for each pound of ideal body weight)

no

Alveolar dead space = dead space dead space attributable to the presence of air- filled alveoli that receive an ______ ____ supply such that efficient gas exchange doesn’t occur

inadequate blood

Total dead space = anatomical +alveolar dead space

-in a healthy person = physiological (total) dead space volume = _______ dead space volume (efficient gas exchange at the alveolar level)

anatomicalMun

minute ventilation = _____ of air moved into the respiratory passageways in 1 minute

volumeMin

Minute ventilation = respiratory rate (breaths per minute) x ____ volumes (volume of inspired/breath)

tidal

minute ventilation example: ____ breathing; minute respiratory volume = 12 breaths per minute x 500 ml/breath = 6000 ml/min

quiet

can alter minute ventilation by 1) altering respiratory rate or 2) by altering _____ of air inspired by each breath

volume

Alveolar ventilation:

-the exchange of gases between the lungs + the blood occurs within the ____ and ___ within respiratory passageways, therefore the volume of atmospheric air that moves into the alveoli is more important than the volume of air entering the respiratory passages

alveoli, not

-with each 500 ml of atmospheric air brought into the respiratory system per breath → ___ ml enters the alveoli + 150 ml stays in the anatomical dead space

350

Ventilation perfusion coupling

= _____ of alveolar airflow and blood flow

-for efficient gas exchange: the airflow + blood flow to particular alveoli must be matched (____ auto regulatory mechanisms contribute)

matching, local

Ventilation perfusion coupling

-poor gas exchange: occurs when either: 1) the alveolar ____ in inadequate or 2) the alveolar ____ ____ is inadequate

airflow, blood flow

Exchange of O2 + Co2

-at alveolus (lung): blood ___ O2 + unloads CO2 (external respiration)

-at body tissues: blood loads CO2 + ____ O2 (internal respiration) (high pressure → low pressure)

loads, unloads

-Rate of gas exchange depends on

1) partial _____ differences of the gases (increased difference → increased rate)

2)_____ area of alveoli (ex. emphysema → decreased rate)

3) diffusion _____ (thicker respiratory membrane → decreased rate ex. pulmonary edema)

pressure, surface, distance

O2 transport

-O2 is transported in the blood in 2 forms; 1) dissolved gas 2) bound to ______ (Hgb + O2 → oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) (majority of O2)

hemoglobin

_______ of Hgb with O2 is:

-reversible

-depends largely on the oxygen partial pressure (PO2)

-also depends on the pH, PCO2, and temp

combination

O2 Transport

1) the degree of ______ of Hgb with O2 at a given PO2 (partial pressure)

-____ PO2 = Hgb is ____ saturated with O2

saturation, high, more

O2 Transport

-____ PO2 = Hgb is only ______ saturated with O2 ex. there is a high is a low PO2 in the tissue capillaries → Hgb releases some of its O2 when reaching tissue → O2 diffuses into tissue

low, partially

Note for O2 transport: not a ____ relationship; 1st heme binding O2 → hemoglobin shape changes → easier O2 binding (when PO2 is between 60 and 100, Hgb is still more than 90% saturated

linear

O2 transport

2) The effects of ______ (pH) on the binding of O2 to Hgb

-_____ acidity (lower pH) → _____ Hgb binding with O2 at any given PO2 (giving more of it to tissues)

-(increase H+)(effect due to H+ binding with Hgb → lower affinity of Hgb for O2)

acidity, higher, decreased

O2 transport

3) The effect of PCO2 on the binding of O2 to Hgb:

-____ PCO2 → less Hgb binding to O2 at any given PO2

more

O2 transport

3) The effect of PCO2 on the binding of O2 to Hgb

This effect is mediated in __ different ways

1) CO2 binding with Hgb → _____ affinity of Hgb to O2

2) CO2 influences the ___

2, lowers, pH

CO2 influences pH as follows

CO2 + ____ → H2CO3 (____ ___) → H+ + HCO3 (_______) (CO2 → increased ___) → lowers affinity of Hgb for O2

H2O, carbonic acid, bicarbonate, H+

______ anhydrase = enzyme in red blood cells which increase the rate of reaction

carbonic

Bohr Effect = the influence of ___ + ___ on the ability of Hgb to bind O2

CO2 + H+

The effects of temperature on the binding of O2 to Hgb

• ______ temperature → ____ Hgb binding in O2 at any given PO2

increased, decreased

-The influences of O2, pH, PCO2 + temperature on O2 binding by Hgb ensures adequate O2 deliveries to ____ tissues that need it most (shift to the ____ of curve)

active, right

-Active tissue = _____ H+ in area (lower pH) produce ____ CO2 → have increased temp + decreased O2 (as a result of increased metabolism) → less O2 binding with Hgb → ___ O2 freely available for the tissue

increased, more, more

O2 transport

5) DPG or BPG (2,3 diphosphoglycerate) substance produced within the red blood cells

-_____ production when there is decreased PaO2 → maintenance of O2 _____ at tissue level

increased, released

Respiratory Disorders

Explain Carbon Monoxide (CO) poisoning

when you inhale too much CO, which displaces oxygen in your body, depriving organs of oxygen

Explain Hypoxia-hypoxic

not enough oxygen entering the lungs, (reduced atmospheric pressure at high altitude) or when lung conditions (like COPD, pneumonia) prevent proper oxygen transfer to the blood, leading to low oxygen in arterial blood (hypoxemia) and tissues. It results from inadequate gas exchange, often due to low environmental oxygen or lung disease,

Explain anemic

blood lacks enough healthy hemoglobin, reducing oxygen delivery to rest of body

explain histotoxic

Cells or tissues cannot utilize oxygen delivered by bloodstream, typically due to metabolic poisons or a toxic agent

explain ischemic

insufficient blood flow to tissues or organs, causing severe shortage of oxygen needed for cell survival (too little O2 carried)

CO2 transport in blood - carried in 3 forms

1) as a _____ gas (10%)

2) combined with proteins, particularly ___ (20%)

3) as ______ ions (HCO3) (70%)

dissolved, Hgb, bicarbonate

CO2 transport:

-Transport as Carbamino compounds

= the CO2 protein _____ (reversible association)

-mostly involves the association with the global part of Hgb

-combination is favored at the tissue level where Hgb has given up its ___ and is therefore reduced (reduced Hgb)

complexes, O2

CO2 transport

-CO2 displacement from Hgb occurs in the _____ where O2 binds to Hgb (oxyhemoglobin) (the displaced CO2 can diffuse into the _____ for elimination)

lungs, alveoli

CO2 transport

-Transport as Bicarbonate atoms (HCO3-)

-mode by which most of the CO2 is transported in blood

-______ effect- the influence O2 binding to Hgb has on Hgbs ability to bind CO2 and H+, encourages CO2 exchange in both tissues + lungs

Haldane

CO2 transport

-when O2 binds to Hgb (ex. in lung capillaries) → oxyHgb → _____ ability of Hgb to bind H+ → increased H+ to bind with HCO3- → _____ H2CO3 (carbonic acid) → CO2 + ____ formation

decreased, increased, H2O

-Carbonic anhydrase catalyzes the reaction in ____ direction

-in the tissues: _____ PCO2 (decreased free H+ b/c bound to Hgb) → increased _____ formation

-in the lungs: ____ PCO2 (increased H+ b/c Hgb has released them) → increased ____ + _____

either, increased, HCO3-, CO2+H20

Control Of respiration

Inspiration: diaphragm + intercostal muscles responsible for (→ thorax expands) require ____ stimulation (impulses) to initiate their contraction (______ nerve)

neural, phrenic

Control Of respiration

-Expiration: _____ neural stimulation to the inspiratory muscles (diaphragm, intercostals) → inspiratory muscle relaxation → lung + chest wall elastic ____ → expiration (thorax returned to resting position

decreased, recoil

Control Of respiration

-Forced Expiration: _____ impulses → expiratory muscle activation (anterior abdominal wall) → decreased thoracic cavity size

nerve

Control Of respiration

-Generation of Rhythmical Breathing movements → _______ center

-activity of neurons in the brain stem → ____ stimulation of the respiratory muscles

respiratory, cyclical

Control Of respiration

-______ Rythmicity areas

-control the basic rhythm of respiration

-______ area/center (cyclical activity)

medullary, inspiratory

Note: inspiratory center can be suppressed by _____ morphine or alcohol

increased

-Expiratory area

-also located in _____

-quiet breathing = no active; expiration is passive (_____)

medulla, eupnea

When increased ventilation is required → expiratory neuron _______→ expiratory muscle ______→ forceful exhalation

activation

Pneumotaxic Area (located in ____)

-mostly sends ______ signals to inspiratory areas → shorter period of inspiration (faster+shallower)

pons, inhibitory

-Apneustic Area (located in ____)

-sends ______ signals to respiratory area → prolonged period of inspiration (long deep inhalation)

-therefore the pons respiratory center influence and modify the activity of _____ neurons

pons, stimulatory, medullaryefulaR

Regulation of the Repiratory center