Ch. 8 Education: Handouts

Exam 3

The Global Crisis:

• 739 million adults are illiterate worldwide

• Two-thirds of them being women

U.S. Education: Educational Attainment & Spending

• ~92% of adults over the age of 25 have completed high school: ~38%-college/univ degree.

• High Investment: Total K-12 government expenditure is approximately $768 billion

Adult Literacy Challenges in the United States

• Low Proficiency (28%): ~ 59 million adults lack basic literacy skills (Level 1 or below).

• Below 6th-Grade level (54%): ~130 million adults read below a 6th-grade level

• Functionally Illiterate (21%): ~ 50 million adults struggle with basic daily reading tasks.

Public Opinion & Performance

• 23% of US adults give their nation’s public schools a grade of A or B.

• 54% of adults give their local schools a grade of A or B, but just as many give them a grade of C or below (46%).

• Our literacy scores are average in a world comparison

• In terms of basic literacy in reading, math, & science, U.S ranks below many high- performing countries, including Japan, South Korea, Singapore, Canada and others. (2022 PISA)

Educational Reform – “A Nation at Risk” (1983)

Initiated during President Regan administration

A Nation at Risk report:

The performance of high school students on the SAT had been declining since the 1960s.

Findings of A Nation at Risk Report:

• 40% of 17-year-olds cannot draw inferences

• Only 1/5 can write persuasive essays

• Only 1/3 can solve multi-step math problems

• 1 in 8 students leave high school functionally illiterate

Functional Illiteracy- a problem

The inability to read, write, or perform basic arithmetic at a level required for effective functioning in everyday life.

Recommendations of A Nation at Risk

a. curriculum reform: Improve school curriculum

b. Stricter Graduation Requirements: Schools should not promote students until they meet achievement standards.

c. Enhancing teacher training

d. Raise teacher’s salaries

High school graduation gap

- narrowing

• 95% of Asian students completed high schools

• 90% of Whites

• 84% of Hispanic students

• 82% of Black students

• 74% of American Indians

(2024-2025)

College graduation gap

–getting wider

Highest: Asian

Followed by white, black, and hispanic

According to College Board (2025)

• Asian Am students score average about 152 points higher than Whites.

• Hispanics score: 149 points below than whites.

• African Americans score : about 173 points below than white students

• American Indians score: 202 points below whites.

Several factors- contributing to higher SAT scores among Asian American students.

1. Cultural Emphasis on Education:

• Education valued; academic success reflects family pride

2. Parental support

• Monitor schoolwork, encourage advanced courses, foster a study-friendly home

3. Educational Resources:

Many live in relatively higher-income households; access to well-funded schools, tutoring, test prep

4. Individual effort

• Strong work ethic; spend more time studying outside school

Factors Behind Lower SAT Scores Among African American Students

1. Historical Context and Systemic Inequities:

• Discrimination, segregation, limited educational/economic access

2. Socioeconomic factors:

• Students face lower median incomes: some from single-parent households; limited access to tutors or SAT prep

3. Racial stereotypes

Students face negative stereotypes about academic ability which can lead to self-doubt and test performance.

Factors Behind Lower SAT Scores Among Latino Students:

1. Language Barriers:

• Some students have limited English proficiency

2. Historical and School Inequities:

• Students attend poorly funded schools; affected by de facto segregation

3. Limited Resources:

• Some students from lower-income families; limited access to SAT prep, tutoring, and enrichment

SAT Scores by Family Income

Students from families earning more than $175,000 scored about 265 points higher on the SAT, on average, than those from families earning less than ~$55,667. (2024)

Dropping out:

Quitting school before earning a high school diploma.

Dropout Rate for 16- to 24-year-olds: approximately 5.2% to 5.3% (2024-2026)

Dropout Rates by Race & Ethnicity

Lowest: Asian American & Whites

Highest: American Indian & Hispanic

Dropout Rates by Family Income:

• $100,000 or above – dropout rate - less than 3%

• Below $30,000 - dropout rate - 10% or higher. (2025)

Reasons for School Dropouts

1, Cultural and Language Barriers

2. Academic Struggle & Boredom

• Poor performance

• Curriculum not relevant to students

3. Economic Pressures

• Poverty

• Parent’s Lower Education

4. Life Transitions and Family Structure

• Frequent Moves

• Single-Parent Households

• Unexpected Pregnancy

5. The School Environment: Safety concern

Programs for Reducing the Drop Out Rate:

a. Successful dropout prevention programs share 5 elements to boost engagement and

reduce dropout rates.

1. Mentoring and Monitoring

• Personal connections with students

2. Case Management

• Address individual academic & social hurdles

3. Family Outreach

• Engage parents as partners

4. Curriculum Reforms

• Using Vocational/Career-Technical Education and hands-on learning to combat boredom.

5. Contending with out-of-school problems.

• Provide support services, resources, and interventions

Alternative Pathways (Second Chance Initiatives)

• GED (General Educational Development): allows students to complete their high school requirements & opens doors to college or employment

Early/Middle College Programs

Allow at-risk underserved students to earn a high school diploma and college credits while enrolling in community or four-year colleges.

Policy-18-year-old Mandate

Raise compulsory school attendance to 18 to reduce early dropout.

Violent Incidents:

67 % public schools reported having at least one violent incident during the school year.

Perceived Safety:

Hispanic and Black students are more likely than White students to miss school due to safety concerns.

LGBTQ+ Vulnerability

3x more likely to be threatened or assaulted and 4x more likely to skip school due to fear compared to their cisgender/heterosexual peers.

**Violence:

Higher:

• In large urban or suburban schools compared to small, rural schools.

• In low-income communities, especially in schools with mostly minority students.

• Males, African Africans, & Latinos- at higher risk

Bullying:

40% of public school students reported being bullied ( on campus + cyberbullying) during the school year

Zero-tolerance policy:

Severe punishment or expulsion for bringing weapons, alcohol, or drugs to campus

Physical Security:

Employ security guards, use metal detectors, cameras, & random searches.

Dress codes & Uniforms:

Restricting gang colors, insignia.

Conflict Resolution Programs:

Teach students to resolve conflicts peacefully

Collaborative Alternative Schools:

Serve for at-risk & expelled students; provide personalized support, smaller classes, flexible schedules, and counseling/mental health services.

Goals 2000:

Educate America Act of 1994: Signed by President Clinton.

a. Standards-based reform: High goals & accountability systems

b. Teacher training & school leadership improvements: Improve instruction, training, and leadership programs

c. Parent & Community Collaboration: Strengthen partnerships to support students

The No Child Left Behind Act (2002)

Signed by President Bush.

4 key principles of NCLB

1. Accountability for learning outcomes:

• School must measure students’ progress through standardized tests & improve achievement

2. Flexibility in the use of federal funds:

• States & local school officials had more control over how they used federal

education funds.

3. Emphasis on scientifically based teaching methods:

Use teaching methods proven effective by research.

4. Expanded options for parents (Parental choice):

• Parents could transfer their children out of failing schools to better-performing ones.

• This act endorsed the concept of school choice program.

Main idea of NCLB

Main idea- competition

School voucher:

Governments

Researchers’ (Saporito & Lareau) Findings:

1. Low-income families are much less likely than middle-class families to participate in school choice programs.

2. White families as a group are more likely to avoid schools with higher percentages of blacks, & AA families show no such sensitivity to race.

Charter schools

• Public schools with more independence.

• Teachers & administrators can creat etheir own programs & policies

Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) (2015).

Signed by President Obama.

• Replaced NCLB, gave more control to states and districts.

• Less focus on standardized testing; more states and local districts flexibility in accountability and assessments.

• Greater emphasis on supporting “undeserved” students

Project Head Start: Early Childhood Intervention

Mission (Since 1965): Federal program serving low-income and at-risk preschoolers.

Goal: Promote school readiness for children from birth to age five by addressing educational and non-educational needs.

Integrated Services:

• Health care & regular check-ups

• Nutritious meals & snacks

• Parent & family engagement

• Access to social services.

Expanding the Reach of Head Start:

• School-aged children and high school students.

• Pregnant women (Prenatal health support).

• Head Start Parents (Vocational training & parenting support).

Longitudinal Results:

Research shows a direct positive relationship between early childhood program enrollment &

• Higher High school graduation rates

• Better school attendance & motivation

• Improved social & emotional skills.

• Stronger performance on achievement tests

• Better overall health

• Enhanced cognitive, language, and social-emotional skills