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Nicholas I
Nicholas I (1796–1855) was the Emperor of Russia from 1825 until his death in 1855. He was the younger brother of Alexander I and came to power after the Decembrist Revolt. Nicholas I is known for his autocratic rule, military expansion, and efforts to modernize Russia, as well as for his conservative policies and suppression of dissent. His reign saw significant events such as the Crimean War.
Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Nationality
Nicholas I’s method of ruling which he believed that he was the sole authority as the divinely appointed agent of God
he made both political and religious decisions
he believed Russians were superior to other nationalities
Serfdom
This system was prevalent in medieval Europe and involved agricultural laborers who could not leave the land without permission. They worked in exchange for protection and a place to live but were subjected to the authority of their lords. It declined with the rise of capitalism and changes in land ownership.
Crimean War
War between Russia against the Ottoman Empire and its French and British allies; ended in humiliation for Russia
Sevastopol
A city located on the Black Sea, known for its significant naval base and historical importance in various conflicts, including the Crimean War. It has a diverse cultural heritage and was a key site during World War II.
Paris Treaty (1856)
Treaty signed at the end of the Crimean War by Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, Sardinia, and Turkey. It was meant to strengthen the security of the Ottoman (Turkish) empire and limit the power of Russia. Under this treaty, Russia:
gave up any claim to holy land
gave up entire navy
Alexander II
By implementing political, social, and economic reforms, Nicholas I's son and successor attempted to modernize and westernize Russia.
Arguments against Serfdom (MEMP)
Economic: freeing serfs → they work in factories → leading to more workers and economic growth
Military: because serfs composed most of the Russian army, abolishing serfdom would lead to more trained and competent soldiers
Moral and Intellectual: contemporary modern countries oppose slavery of any kind
serf made Noble weak
Practical: growing discontent could no longer be handled, and a serf revolution would be inevitable if nothing changed
Emancipation Edict
The first and most important of the liberal reforms enacted during the reign of Emperor Alexander II of Russia. The reform effectively abolished serfdom throughout the Russian Empire.
Reactions to Edict
Nobles expressed concern over loss of labor and economic stability, while peasants experienced mixed feelings of relief and uncertainty about their new rights- wasn’t progressive enough
Alexander II’s Military Reforms
Part of Alexander II’s attempts to modernize Russia:
ended flogging of soldiers
prohibited military servitude as an indicted punishment
reduced military service from 25 years to 6 years
created literate soldiers by creating schools for members of the army
Alexander II’s Judicial Reforms
publicized trials
provided defense attorneys
required legal training for Russian judges
Alexander II’s Cultural and Educational Reforms
toned down the censorship of books and papers
allowed colleges to teach their own courses (doesn’t have to be government rueld)
separated church from school
Zemstva
after serfdom was abolished, Alexander II instituted a system of elected local assemblies to take the place of the nobility's power in managing local affairs.
Populism
The sentiment of empowering the populace over the elite began to spread among the educated in Russia, partly due to the educational reforms of Alexander II.
“Going to the People”
The movement emerged from increasing populist sentiments, involving college students who traveled to rural areas to educate farmers about agricultural socialist and populist ideologies. However, many farmers were either confused by or angry at these teachings.
Peter Tkachev
a Russian writer, critic and revolutionary theorist that elieved hat populism would never work because wealthy peasants would always support the Tsar
the only way to transition to a socialist society, he believed, was for the Tsar to be violently overthrown by a dictatorship
these ideas spread in popularity
People’s Will/Assassination of Alexander II
Winter palace, revolutionary went to check on guards
Loris-Melikov Reforms
The main idea was to make people cooperate with the government. For this, Loris-Melikov suggested that they allow a few representatives of the commons to be presented in the legislative institutions with the granted advisory rights.
Carl Watt’s View of Alexander II
That he wasn’t accomaditing the public of russia, but had interesting reforms
Graham Darby’s View of Alexander II
The belief is that Alexander II should not be blamed as his reforms were more successful than initially perceived. The fault lies with his successors. The emancipated serfs utilized their land effectively, and the judicial and military reforms were significant.
Alexander III
tsar educated by a conservative; made police reforms, reestablishment of nobles, education, orthodoxy, and intellectual life reforms, and Russification
“Exceptional Measure”
no more freedoms of universities, governments hiring professors; only nobles could get educated; lessons focused on Russia;
Land Captains
nobles that were recruited by the government that were given many powers over the peasants
Alexander III’s Educational Reforms
rollback of freedoms of universities, governments hiring professors; only nobles could get educated;
Russification
Forced Russian orthodox, made russian the official language
pogroms
Sergei Witte’s Economic Reforms
Appointed by Nicholas II, the goal was to devise new strategies for the Russian economy to industrialize and modernize on an industrial level, but not intellectually. As for foreign investment, the aim was to attract it by placing the Russian currency on the gold standard to ensure stability; this influx of capital and labor would aid in the industrialization process.
Social Democrats (Bolsheviks and Mensheviks)
iwanted revolution against the tsar; split between socialist and marxist; Bolsheviks believed in a small group leader needed to overthrow while Mensheviks more democratic
Social Revolutionaries
agricultural socialists; future Russia, license, and agricultural methods; main method was violence because they were terrorists and assassinated government officials
Liberals
various political groups that believed on reform within the saurus system; educated and more free thinking
Zubatov Movement
tried to help the people; secret police established, and protected unions and factories in order to get them freedom
Russo-Japanese War
Japan announced a deal, but Russia refused, so Japan launched a surprise attack, which led to more defeats for Russia; signed the Treaty of Portsmith, which said that russia would stay out of Port Arthur and Korea
Bloody Sunday
a calm peacful demsontration for frreedom and then, troops began to mow them down, and the revolution grew from this
Potemkin
The Tsar relied on the loyalty of the army and navy; however, the navy crew, incensed by being forced to eat raw meat, rebelled against their officers. They commandeered their ship and set sail for Odessa, sparking a public uprising against the Tsar, which resulted in Russian forces being dispatched to suppress them.
Soviets
workers council set up in factories to look after workers and sometimes wagches them
October Manifesto
end of 1905 revolution technically because the tsar gave up power
1. gave freedom of conscience and speech: can't be persecuted theoretically for this
2. freedom of association to form political parties
3. promised the formation of a duma, which couldn't make laws but could block laws
Why did the Tsar survive 1905?
The military backed him up
Kadets
They had more liberal ideas and wanted more free rights
Octobrists
They were more conservatists and wanted more power of the tsar
First and Second Dumas
they failed
1. deputies demanded increased powers and had fierce debates
2. although debates ended in brawls between the left and right, it cooperated with the government over famine relief
Third and Fourth Dumas
Relations with the government improved due to a bias towards the right. Stolypin enacted land reforms and established a law for universal education, mandating four years of compulsory primary education. Additionally, the army underwent modernization, the Justice of the Peace was reinstated, and a progressive national health insurance scheme for workers was developed.
Stolypin’s Agrarian Reforms
1906-1911: set up field courts-martial to crush peasant uprisings and thousands of peasants were executed by hanging and many were exiled; however, these reforms allowed peasants to leave the communes to consolidate their strips of land into a single unit; they reduced the power of the communes as well as redistributing the land of some nobles; the reforms also helped go-ahead peasants to buy land from less enterprising peasants and create larger, more efficient, farms; the peasant reaction was mixed; while some relished the chance to escape the restrictions of the communes, others saw those who left as traitors
Industrial Reforms (1905-1914)
production steadily grew in coal and steel, largely to rebuild the Baltic fleet, but couldn't meet agricultural tools demand; consumer goods fell, industry was state sponsored,
WWI: The Players
Germany
a constitutional monarchy with a king and a prime minister
a relatively new country that had only just united but had industrialized very quickly
suffered from social and political divisions and problems with Prussians
France
a democratic republic with extensive civil liberties
allied with Russia, who owed them a lot of money (very good for France’s economy)
Britain
a parliamentary democracy with a monarchy
their main goal: to protect their overseas colonial holdings using the policy of “splendid isolation,” which meant they would protect their territories but wouldn’t go out of their way to fight other nations
Austria-Hungary
a dual monarchy: 1 king, 2 parliaments (one for Austria, one for Hungary)
their main concern was with Serbia, which was very aggressive (and backed by Russia)
Ottoman Empire (sick man)
in chaos as a result of the Sultan being overthrown by the Young Turk
Bismarck’s Alliances and Weltpolitik
Bismarck wanted to build a web of alliances to protect Germany
After Kaprivi replaced Bismarck, German foreign policy changed completely
Weltpolitik: imperial German foreign policy that aimed to turn Germany into a world power through aggressive diplomacy
Imperialism
a policy of extending a country's power and influence through diplomacy or military force
Jameson Raid
led by Jameson; a raid on the Dutch Republic in 1895; led to a British defeat because they tried to arm South Africa to overthrow, but it was a massive failure and embarrassment
Risk Theory
the German naval strategy that argued for a German navy of sufficient size that, even if defeated in a naval war with Britain, it would so damage the British navy as to leave the latter vulnerable to defeat by other navies
Alliance Systems
Germany aimed to expand its navy sufficiently to deter British retaliation, but this strategy was illogical and provoked Britain, leading to its search for alliances. Consequently, Russia, France, and Britain established the Triple Entente.
Dreadnought
a battleship with increased speed and power over conventional warships
The Balkans
full of different ethnicities; the Ottomans, Austria-Hungary, and Russia all wanted portions of this
The Moroccan Crisis
Germany concerned about Britain and France being allies, so their idea was to attack Morocco to see if Britain would help e; Britain said they would fight with France if it came to it, which led to ridicule
The Bosnian Crisis
Britain strengthened its alliance with Russia, prompting Germany to forge a closer relationship with Austria-Hungary. Following the overthrow of the Ottomans, Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia, inciting anger in Serbia. Tensions nearly escalated to war as Britain and France were reluctant to engage in conflict with Russia and Serbia.
The First Balkan War
Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro sought to drive out of the Balkans to secure Macedonia, leading to a strengthened Serbia. This prompted the Ottomans to consider aligning with Austria-Hungary.
The Second Balkan War
due to disagreements in the First Balkan War, Bulgaria went to war against Greece and Serbia to get back a territory with ethnic Bulgarians, and Bulgaria lost, leading to Serbia, going even stronger and multiplying its size by two
Arms Race (WWI)
buildup of machine guns, chemical warfare, tax, and t a standing army
Schlieffen Plan
Germany's military strategy at the onset of World War I involved a swift defeat of France through an attack via Belgium, followed by an eastward move to confront Russia.
July Crisis
Archduke Franz Ferdinand's assassination by the Serbian nationalist group, the Black Hand, incited anger in Austria-Hungary, with Germany's support. Austria-Hungary then declared war on Serbia, prompting Russia to mobilize. This led Germany to declare war on Russia and, subsequently, France.
Historiography of Origins of WWI
1. Fischer Thesis: The German war aims for expansion indicated their readiness to initiate a conflict for territorial acquisition.
2. Ritter Thesis: Germany lacked a unified plan for war and responded defensively during the July crisis.
3. Orthodox View: All belligerent parties were to blame.
4. Alliances: The alliances were unstable, and there was an absence of a balance of power.
5. Militarism: The increase in military spending and arms buildup led to mutual suspicion among nations, and military strategies reflected an anticipation of war.r
6. Nationalism: July Crisis lit fire to war
WW1: The Western Front
trench warfare, Battles of Verdun and the Somme, failure of Schlieffen Plan, and ended in a bloody stalemate between Germany, Britain, US, and France
Verdun and Somme
Two brutal battles fought through trench warfare that resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths
Verdun: a French fortress town that Germany hoped to kill as many people as possible in
a battle of attrition: 303 days long
315,000 French deaths, 230,000 German deaths
considered a French victory
Somme: a diversionary battle fought between German and British troops at the same time as the battle of Verdun
involved the first use of a tank; over 1 million people suffered casualties
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
peace treaty signed
Eastern Front
no trenches, large land gains; Germany, A-H, and Turks vs. Russia and Serbs; A-H offensive was launched because of Verdun, but Russia not well prepared with an army because it was drowning and its own blood and supply
Other Fronts in WWI
Italian: a diversionary front meant to draw German troops away from the Eastern and Western Fronts
did not go well for the allies
Turkey & Middle East: Ottoman Empire and usually Britain- fought alongside native Arabs
Colonial Territories: colonial subjects were sent to fight for their imperial governments
Trench Warfare
the unprecedentedly deadly and stationary style of fighting that emerged during WWI as a result of the development of machine guns
along with the deadliness of the artillery weapons used, the trenches were a breeding ground for disease, and most soldiers died from the flu
New Technologies (WWI)
Machine guns, chemical warfare, airplanes, tanks, submarines, grenades, heavy artillery, and barbed wire caused devastating losses of life and became increasingly versatile and effective as the war progressed.
Naval Warfare (WWI)
The escalating international pressures were largely caused by submarine warfare; Germany employed unrestricted submarine warfare while Britain used its potent navy to blockade German ports, preventing food, supplies, and war materials from reaching the German military and populace.
Battle of Jutland
The only significant naval battle of World War I occurred in May 1916 when the German Baltic fleet clashed with the British off the coast of Denmark. The Germans inflicted substantial losses on the British but were unable to break the British blockade. Consequently, the German fleet withdrew to the Baltic and remained there. While British naval dominance was affirmed, the British fleet did not achieve a complete victory over the Germans, which hindered efforts to aid Russia via the Baltic Sea.
Reasons for German Defeat/Allied Victory
Germany made several gambles that didn’t pay off, including:
The Schlieffen Plan
Verdun
unrestricted U-boa
WWI: A Total War?
The war was not waged for limited objectives, but for absolute victory.
Governments employed every weapon at their disposal to conclude the conflict, innovating new technologies as the war advanced.
Civilians became intentional targets.
Nations devised novel methods to manage their economies and populations to wage the battles of WWI.
Growth of Government Power: WWI
As a result of the war, many governments—such as those of Britain, France, and Germany—centralized power and subjected citizens to much greater control
WWI’s Cost (Moral, Economic, Political)
Moral: about 9 million soldiers killed
Economic:
all powers involved had to borrow money and were in debt
farmland, factories, and railroads were destroyed
Political:
monarchies crumbled overnight, political structures changed completely
Austria-Hungary changed to Austria and Hungary
the Ottoman Empire demolished
Germany underwent a complete change in leadership
Paris Peace Conference Aims
Aimed to set the terms for peace after World War I. Leaders from the victorious nations, including France, Great Britain, the United States, and Italy, gathered to negotiate peace treaties with the defeated Central Powers.
“Stabbed in the Back” WWI
Sentiment held by German nationalists after World War I, claiming that their defeat was due to betrayal from other nations rather than military failure.
Treaty of Versailles
Controversial peace treaty that officially ended WWI, created by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson, French Premier Georges Clemenceau, and British Prime Minister David Lloyd George
some of its terms included:
War Guilt: Germany was solely responsible for the war and all damages caused
Disarmament: Germany could have at most 6 battleships and one army of 1,000 men
Territorial Changes: Germany lost 15% of its land
Reparations: Germany had to pay for damages and pensions to war widows and soldiers who were wounded
Punishment of War Criminals: some of Germany’s high-ranking generals would be put on trial for the Rape of Belgium
Criticisms/Alternative Views of Treaty of Versailles
Criticisms:
most Germans were very unhappy with the Treaty of Versailles, believing that its War Guilt Claus was too harsh
After disarmament, Germany was very vulnerable, especially to the Communists to the East
these factors led to a general sentiment of paranoia and discontent among German citizens
Alternative Views:
some contemporary historians believe that Versailles was actually very forgiving
Nazi propaganda has influenced our perspective of the Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of St. Germain
peace treaty that officially recognized the division of the former empire of Austria-Hungary and helped to divide the territory between the two new states
Austria lost much of its land
the treaty specified that Austria was not allowed to recombine with Germany
Treaty of Trianon
peace treaty that revolved around the division of the former territory of Austria-Hungary. In whcih Hungary lost ~75% of its territory and was now landlocked
Treaty of Sevres
peace treaty that revolved around the division of former Ottoman Empire territory
a large portion of the Ottoman Empire’s territory was given to the League of Nations
Greece was granted a portion of Turkey’s territory known as ____, which Turkey promptly reconquered through a way
Treaty of Lausanne
The peace treaty that largely reversed the decisions made during the Treaty of Sèvres officially recognized the disputed territories as Turkish once more.
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