Sociology Exam 2

culture

the entire way of life of a group of people that acts as a lens through which one views the world

ethnocentrism

the belief that our culture is the "normal" one

cultural relativism

seeing each culture as simply different rather than worse or wrong

material culture

any physical object to which we give social meaning (art, artifacts, tools, weapons, etc.)

nonmaterial culture

signs, gestures, language

Sapir-Wharf Hypothesis

language structures thought and that ways of looking at the world are embedded in language

values

set of shared beliefs that a group considers worthwhile and desirable

norms

rules regarding what behavior is acceptable

folkways

loosely enforced norms that involve common customs and ensure smooth social interaction and acceptance

mores

norm that carries greater moral significance - is closely related to the core values of a group and often involves severe repercussions for violations

sanctions

positive or negative reactions to the ways people follow/disobey norms

social control

the formal/informal mechanisms used to increase conformity to values and norms and thus increase social cohesion

dominant culture

refers to the values, norms, and practices of the group within society that is most powerful in terms of wealth, prestige, status, and influence

subculture

a group within society that is differentiated by its distinctive value, norms, and lifestyle

counterculture

a group within society that openly rejects and may actively oppose society's values and norms

cultural diffusion

dissemination of material and nonmaterial culture from one group to another

cultural leveling

process by which cultures that were once unique and distinct become increasingly similar

nature vs. nurture debate

ongoing discussion of the respective roles of genetics and socialization in determining individual behaviors and traits

socialization

process of learning and internalizing the values, beliefs, and norms of our social group by which we have become functioning members of society

feral children

children who have had little human contact and may nave lived in social isolation from a young age

self

our personal identity which is separate and different from all other people

looking-glass self

refers to the notion that self develops through our perception of others' evaluations and appraisals of us

Mead

believed that the self develops through several stages

preparatory stage

up until age 3 - mimicking stage

play stage

3-6 years old - taking on roles

game stage

6-8 years old - take on generalized other

particular/significant other

perspectives and expectations of a particular role that a child learns and internalizes

generalized other

perspectives and expectations of a network of others that children learn and then take into account when shaping their own behavior

Thomas theorem

formulation of the way individuals determine reality "if people define situations as real, they are really their consequences"

definition of the situation

an agreement with other about "what is going on" in a given circumstance

expressions given

expressions that are intentional and usually verbal

expressions given off

intended or unintended and are usually nonverbal

impression management

effort to control the impressions we make on others so they form a desired view of us

dramaturgy

social life is analyzed in terms of its similarities to theater

front

setting or scene of performance that helps us establish meaning

region

context of performance; location, decor, props

personal front

performance tactics we use - our appearance, manner, style of dress, gender, race, age

backstage

where we prepare or rehearse for our performance/interaction

frontstage

where we play a particular role and perform for an "audience" of others

hidden curriculum

children are often taught about the values and norms of society without it being explicitly part of the curriculum

agents of socialization

family, schools, peers, the media

role

set of behaviors expected from someone because of their status

role conflict

experienced when we occupy 2 or more roles with contradictory expectations

role strain

experienced when there are contradictory expectations within one role

role exit

process of leaving a role we will no longer occupy

emotion work

how we live up to feeling rules - how you actually demonstrate feelings

feeling rules

rules about how you're supposed to feel in certain situations

agency

ability of individual to act freely and independently

group

collection of people who share some attribute, identify with one another, and interact with each other

crowd

temporary gathering of people in a public place - may interact with each other but don't identify with one another and don't remain in contact

primary group

involve the greatest amount of face-to-face interaction and cooperation and the deepest feelings of belonging (family and friends)

secondary group

usually organized around a specific activity or the accomplishment of a task

social network

web of direct and indirect ties connecting an individual to other people

direct ties

ties directly to another person

indirect ties

ties you have to someone through another person

anomie

"normlessness" alienation and loss of purpose - weaker social bonds

group dynamics

patterns of interactions between groups and individuals

in-group

group that one identifies with and feels loyalty towards

out-group

group an individual feels opposition, rivalry, or hostility towards

reference group

group that provides a standard of comparison against which we evaluate ourselves

group cohesion

sense of solidarity or loyalty that individuals feel towards a group to which they belong

groupthink

in very cohesive groups, the tendency to enforce a high degree of conformity among members, creating a demand for unanimous agreement

social influence

influence of one's fellow group members on individual attitudes and behaviors (peer pressure)

social loafing

phenomenon in which each individual contributes a little less as more individuals are added to the task

coercive power

backed by the threat of force

influential power

supported by persuasion

traditional authority

based in custom, birthright, or divine right

legal-rational authority

based in laws, rules, and procedures

charismatic authority

based in perception of remarkable personal qualities in a leader

bureaucracy

type of secondary group designed to perform tasks efficiently, characterized by specialization, technical competence, hierarchy, written rules, impersonality, and formal written communication

predictability, calculability, control, efficiency

4 components if bureaucracy

McDonaldization

describes the spread of bureaucratic rationalization and the accompanying increases in efficiency and dehumanization

instrumental leadership

leadership that is task or goal orientated

expressive leadership

leadership concerned with maintaining emotional and relational harmony within the group

deviance

a behavior, trait, belief, or other characteristic that violates a norm and causes a negative reaction

structural strain theory

social inequality can create situations in which people experience tension between society's goals and the means they have available to meet those goals

innovators

those who accept society's goals but not the approved means to achieve them

ritualists

given up hope of achieving society's goals but still operates according to the approved means

retreatists

renounce society's goals and means and live outside conventional norms

rebels

reject society's approved goals and means - create and work toward their own goals using new means

primary deviance

in labeling theory, the initial act or attitude that causes one to be labeled deviant

secondary deviance

the subsequent deviant identity or career that develops as a result of being labeled deviant

tertiary deviance

when someone normalizes behavior that is widely considered deviant by labelling it as nondeviant

Functionalism and Deviance

deviance serves a function in our society - clarifies moral boundaries and promotes social cohesion

conflict theory and deviance

deviance is a result of social conflict - inequality is reproduced in the way deviance is defined

structural strain theory

there are goals in our society that people want to achieve, but they cannot always reach those goals - creates stress because people are aware of goals but don't have the means to achieve them

differential association theory

Edwin Sutherland's hypothesis that we learn to be deviant through association with deviant peers

labeling theory

symbolic interactionist perspective developed by Howard Becker - states that deviance is caused by external judgements that change a person's self-concept and the way others respond to him or her

self-fulfilling prophecy

inaccurate statement/belief that by altering the situation, becomes accurate - a prediction that causes itself to come true

stigma

any physical or social attribute that devalues a person/group's identity - may exclude those who are devalued from normal social institutions

deviance avowal

process by which an individual self-identifies as deviant and initiates their own labeling process

crime

a violation of a norm that has been codified into law

violent crime

crime in which violence is either the objective or the means to an end (murder, rape, aggravated assault)

property crime

crime that does not evolved violence (burglary, larceny, theft, arson)

cybercrime

crime committed via the internet (identity theft, embezzlement, fraud, financial scams)

white collar crime

crime committed by a high-status individual in the course of their occupation

deterrence

approach to punishment that relies on the threat of harsh penalties to discourage people from committing crimes

retribution

an approach to punishment that emphasizes retaliations or revenge for the crime as the appropriate goal

incapacitation

approach to punishment that seeks to protect society from criminals by imprisoning or executing them

rehabilitation

an approach to punishment that attempts to reform criminals as part of their penalty