Forestry final

Nutrient limitations

A resources is limiting when the addition of that resource results in an increase in plant growth

Liebig’s Law of the Minimum

Growth is controlled not by the total amount of resources available, but by the scarcest resource(limiting factor)

Nitrogen

• The most commonly limiting nutrient in forest ecosystem

-Plants require it in large quantities

-78% of earths atmosphere is N9 Various forms but mostly N2 gas)

-Triple bond in N2 gas makes it mostly inert

What are the major nitrogen transformations in forests?

• Fixation

• Mineralization

• Immobilization

• Nitrification

• Volatilization

• Leaching

• Denitrification

Fixation

How Nitrogen enters ecosystems

Chemical fixation

• The Haber-Bosch Process

-Explosives(and later fertilizer) manufacture

• Lightning

-Converts N2 into nitrous oxides

-Small amounts fixed

-Important in early history of earth

Biological Fixation

-Symbiotic association between N2 fixing bacteria and higher plants

• Rhizobium bacteria: legumes

• Frankia bacteria: actinorhizal plants

-Free living non-symbiotic microorganisms

• Certain bacteria(Azospirillum), blue-green algae  

Mineralization

• The process in which soil organic matter is decomposed by microbes releasing mineral(plant available) N in the process, Organic N→inorganic N (NH4)

• Heterotrophs use organic molecules as source of energy

-Bacteria - neutral to alkaline environments

-Fungi - acidic environments

• Factors that control N mineralization(same as decomposition)

-Moisture, temp, pH, litter quality

Immobilization

• Conversion of mineral N to organic N by microbes

• Organisms that decompose organic matter as an energy source require nitrogen 

• Organic materials with a low N content cannot supply the needs of these organism thus they use soil N(compete with plants)

Mineralization/Immobilization dynamics during decomposition

• Stage 1: Net
  immobilization, C:N
  ratio decreases

• Stage 2: “break even”

• Stage 3: Net
  mineralization, mineral
  N (NH4) released into
  soil

Nitrification

Nitrification of Ammonium N
2 step process:
1. NH4 to NO2 (nitrite)
– Nitrosomonas
2. NO2 to NO3 (nitrate)
– Nitrobacter

Volatilization

NH₄⁺ + OH^- → NH3 + H₂O
Only occurs at high pH. Not a major N
transformation in most forest ecosystems

Leaching

• Public Health Standard for nitrate in drinking
  water = 10 ppm NO3
  – Blue baby syndrome

• Nitrate nitrogen is negatively charged
  therefore it is not adsorbed by the soil and thus will move with soil water.

Denitrification

NO_3—> N₂O or NO or N₂ + Oxygen
• Anaerobic process
– Plants can facilitate this by depleting soil oxygen
• Saturated soil
• High organic matter
• High pH
Can be a major pathway of N loss.

Relationships between litter quality, decomposition rates, residence time & nitrogen transformations

Litter quality, decomposition rates, residence time, and nitrogen transformations are interconnected in ecosystems, with high-quality litter (high N, low lignin) decomposing faster, influencing nutrient cycling and soil health. 

Here's a more detailed explanation of these relationships:

1. Litter Quality and Decomposition Rates:

• Litter Quality: Refers to the chemical composition of plant litter, including factors like nitrogen (N) and lignin content, as well as C:N ratio.

• Decomposition Rates: The speed at which litter breaks down and releases nutrients.

• Relationship:

  • Litter with high N content and low lignin content (high-quality litter) typically decomposes faster than litter with low N and high lignin content (low-quality litter).

  • The C:N ratio is also important; lower C:N ratios (more N relative to carbon) indicate higher quality litter and faster decomposition.

  • Lignin, a complex polysaccharide, is resistant to decomposition, so high lignin content slows down decomposition. 

2. Residence Time and Nitrogen Transformations:

• Residence Time:

  The length of time that litter remains in the litter layer before it decomposes. 

• Nitrogen Transformations:

  The processes that convert nitrogen from one form to another, such as mineralization (release of N from organic matter) and immobilization (uptake of N by microbes). 

• Relationship:

  • Faster decomposition rates lead to shorter residence times of litter. 

  • Decomposition releases nutrients, including nitrogen, into the soil, which can then be mineralized or immobilized. 

  • The rate of nitrogen transformations is influenced by litter quality and decomposition rates, affecting nutrient availability for plants and other organisms. 

  • Longer residence times of low-quality litter can lead to slower nutrient release and potentially lower soil fertility. 

3. Examples and Considerations:

• Temperate Forests:

  In temperate forests, litter quality and decomposition rates are influenced by factors like tree species, climate, and soil conditions. 

• Nitrogen Addition:

  Increased nitrogen deposition can alter litter quality and decomposition rates, potentially leading to slower decomposition of low-quality litter and faster decomposition of high-quality litter. 

• Soil Organic Matter:

  Litter decomposition is a key process in the formation and turnover of soil organic matter (SOM), which is important for soil health and fertility. 

• Microbial Activity:

  Microbial communities play a crucial role in litter decomposition, with different microbial groups specializing in breaking down different types of litter. 

• Climate Change:

  Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns can affect litter decomposition rates and nitrogen transformations, potentially impacting ecosystem functioning. 

Major forms of plant available nitrogen in soil, and their behavior.

nitrate (NO3-) and ammonium (NH4+), with nitrate being highly mobile and prone to leaching, while ammonium is held by soil particles and less mobile. 

Clearcutting

stem harvesting: a common practice today

• All stems removed from a site

• Logging slash left behind(sometimes in piles or windrows)

Longer rotation gives more time to recover= more sustainable

The effect of clearcutting practices on biogeochemical processes – and long-term forest sustainability.

• Soil Erosion and Degradation:

  Can lead to increased soil erosion and loss of soil organic matter, as the trees' roots no longer hold the soil in place. 

• Water Cycle Disruption:

  The absence of trees can disrupt the water cycle by reducing evapotranspiration (the process of water moving from the ground to the atmosphere through plants) and increasing runoff, potentially leading to water pollution and flooding. 

• Nutrient Leaching:

  Can lead to increased nutrient leaching from the soil, as the soil is exposed to the elements and nutrients are no longer cycled through the trees. 

• Carbon Sequestration:

  Trees and forest soils store significant amounts of carbon. Clearcutting releases this stored carbon into the atmosphere, contributing to climate change. 

• Habitat Loss and Biodiversity:

  Destroys forest ecosystems and wildlife habitats, leading to a decrease in biodiversity. 

The effect of Whole tree harvesting practices on biogeochemical processes – and long-term forest sustainability.

• Nutrient Depletion:

  Whole-tree harvesting, which involves removing the entire tree, including the branches and leaves, can lead to a greater depletion of nutrients from the soil than stem-only harvesting, which only removes the trunk. 

• Soil Disturbance:

  Whole-tree harvesting can cause greater soil disturbance than stem-only harvesting, potentially leading to soil erosion and compaction. 

• Reduced Carbon Storage:

  Whole-tree harvesting can reduce the amount of carbon stored in the forest ecosystem, as the biomass that would otherwise decompose and store carbon is removed. 

The effect of burning practices on biogeochemical processes – and long-term forest sustainability.

• Nutrient Cycling:

  Can alter nutrient cycling by rapidly releasing nutrients into the soil, but also potentially leading to nutrient loss through leaching and volatilization. 

• Soil Structure:

  Can alter soil structure, leading to increased erosion and reduced water infiltration. 

• Air Quality:

  Can release pollutants into the air, impacting air quality and human health. 

Assart effect. Define and explain

• Accelerated nutrient mineralization following a disturbance(clearcutting) creating a pulse of available nutrients

-Temporary increase in nutrients

-More dead stuff in the soil that will eventually mineralize 

-Less plants to take up nutrients 

• Consequences:

-Some nutrients may remain available

-Others may leach/runoff

• Can be responsible for fooling foresters about site quality

-Unusually high nutrient levels(just rained)

-Even nutrient demanding species may grow well on poor sites

• But the effect is only temporary

Role of pioneer species in forest succession.

• Colonize sites following clearcutting/disturbance (species eliminated at Hubbard Brook)

• Soil nutrient levels rapidly decline - sometimes below pre-disturbance levels

• Decreases potential for leaching/loss

Ecological role of solar radiation (Lectures 10-11)

Fate of solar radiation that contacts the atmosphere

• The layer closest to the surface is called the troposphere -extends from the Earth’s
  surface up to about10-15 k

• The ozone layer is located above the troposphere in the stratosphere

• Much (~ 50%) radiation does not reach earth’s
  surface.

  Why?
  – Reflected by clouds
  – Some UV absorbed
  by ozone (O3)
  - Some IR absorbed by
  clouds

Once solar radiation reaches the surface of the earth – it’s either absorbed or reflected
– Fresh snow cover 75-95%
– Sandy soil 15-40%
– Fresh grass 20-25%
– Dark soil 7-10%
– Forest 3-10%
• Much of the absorbed radiation radiates back as heat
(longwave/IR radiation)

Albedo

% of incident radiation that is reflected(lighter color high albedo)

What is the greenhouse effect?

• The sun's energy, in the form of radiation, reaches the Earth and is absorbed by the surface. 

• The Earth then emits this energy back into space as heat (infrared radiation). 

• Certain gases in the atmosphere, known as greenhouse gases (like carbon dioxide, methane, and water vapor), trap some of this outgoing heat, preventing it from escaping into space. 

• This trapping of heat warms the Earth's surface and atmosphere, creating a natural greenhouse effect. 

Why is greenhouse effect important to life on Earth?

• The GE plays a critical role in the maintaining the temperature of our ecosystem within a range suitable for life

-Specifically it maintains the critical medium for life(H₂O) in a liquid rather than a solid or vapor form

Photoperiod

Period of time in a day that an organism is exposed to light

Photoperiodism

• The sensitivity of organisms to the length of night 

-Flowering

-Growth initiation/cessation

-Leaf senescence

• Photoperiodic response based on a special light absorbing pigment(phytochrome) 

Light scattering (diffuse light) by clouds

Clouds scatter sunlight, creating diffuse light that can penetrate deeper into forest canopies than direct sunlight, potentially enhancing photosynthesis for understory vegetation and impacting overall forest ecosystem productivity. 

Relationship between photosynthesis and light intensity

The rate of photosynthesis generally increases as light intensity increases, but only up to a certain point where other factors become limiting, after which the rate plateaus or even decrease

Light compensation point (definition and ecological significance). How does LCP vary w/age? Shade tolerance?

The light compensation point (LCP) is the light intensity where the rate of photosynthesis equals the rate of respiration, meaning there's no net carbon dioxide uptake. Ecologically, it's important because it determines the minimum light level a plant needs to survive and grow. LCPs vary with age and shade tolerance, with shade-tolerant plants generally having lower LCPs

How do you measure LCP and other photosynthetic parameters

• Infrared gas analyzer(IRGA)

• Measures “Delta” CO 2 per unit leaf area

Light requirements may change with age

• Which has a higher light compensation point?

• Physiological explanation

• Ecological significance

• Common mycelial network

-Shared network belowground

-Through these tubes pants can steal from one another

-”Nurse tree 

Light quality. Which wavelengths are selectively filtered out by green leaves?

Green leaves selectively filter out red and blue wavelengths of light, while reflecting or transmitting green wavelengths, which is why we perceive them as green. 

Sunflecks (definition and ecological significance)

• Much of the light that reaches the forest floor n sunny weather is sunflecks

-patches of direct sunlight that shine through small gaps

• Average light intensity may be below the light comp. Points of many plants

-So sunflecks are important!

• Why are there no sunflecks on cloudy days?

-It has to be direct sunlight

-Clouds diffuse sunlight

• Light transmittance ranged from 30-100% of full sun

Morphological & physiological differences between sun and shade leaves

• Compare to sun leaves, shade leaves are generally:

-Larger 

-Thinner

-Less lobed

-And have a thinner cuticle with fewer hairs

• Why?

-To maximize sunlight capture

-Tradeoff having a leaf surface for leaf thickness

-Less lobes=not as hard to move carbs out to photosynthesize

Which leaves are “greener”: sun or shade leaves?

• Shade leaves are often greener than sun leaves

-higher concentration of chlorophyll

-more chloroplasts per unit area

• Sometimes shade leaves are not greener

-light isnt limit(water or nutrient deficiency)

Photosynthetic comparisons of sun and shade-grown plants

• Sun grown plants have a higher max photosynthesis (P_max)

• Shade-grown plants have a lower LCP

Heliophytes and Sciophytes

• This is a genetic adaptation to increase fitness in particular environments

-Limited ability to acclimate

Heliophytes

Some plants will grow well only at high light intensities(sun loving)

Sciophytes

Some grow well only in partial shade(shade loving)

Variability of CO₂ concentrations in different parts of the canopy. Why? Implications for photosynthesis/shade tolerance? See also “Wind” lecture.

• CO₂ concentrations are often much higher on the forest floor than they are above canopy

-Respiration

Phototrophism

• Orientation of plants in response to light

• (+) growth toward light

• (-) growth away from light

Phytochrome (what is it? How does it work?)

Light photoreceptors

• Exists in 2 forms: active and inactive

• The active form absorbs red light, inactive absorbs far red

• Light rapidly converts it to active. Slow conversion to the inactive form occurs at night(or in shade)

• Phytochrome helps some plants synchronize their activity to seasonal changes in night length

-If more phytochrome is present in the active form, day length>night length

-If inactive form dominates, night length>day length

Why is phytochrome important?

• Why is it important

-Conservative approach that allows plants to not be fooled by fluctuating weather conditions

• Where is photoperiodism most prevalent?

-Highly variable but seasonally predictable climates

• Photoperiodism at low latitudes

Photoblastic seeds

Germination influenced by light

(+)photoblastic: germination stimulated by light

(-)photoblastic: germination inhibited by light

-Sciophyte

Planting “shock”. Implications of sudden increases of light on young and mature trees.

• Sudden exposure of shade leaves to full sunlight(plus altered temp/moisture)

-Photooxidation of pigments

-Death

-Reduction/cessation of growth

• “Readjustment” of root: shoot ratios

Temperature as an Ecological Factor (Lectures 12-13)

Conduction

The transfer of energy between
objects that are in physical contact

Convection

The transfer of energy due to fluid motion

Radiation budget relationship w/Albedo)

Temperature of an object is largely determined by the balance of radiant energy (solar radiation) in to reflection & re-radiation out.
• Change in temp due to conduction
• Ein > Eout: Positive budget
• Ein = Eout: Neutral
• Ein < Eout: Negative budget

Positive radiation budget: 2 scenarios

• Sunny day

-Strongly +: Rapid temp increase

• Cloudy day

-Weakly +: Slow temp increase

Negative radiation budget: 2 scenarios

• Clear night

-Strongly (-): Rapid temp decrease

• Cloudy night

-Weakly (-): Slow temp decrease

View factor (definition and relationship w/radiation budget)

The proportion of the radiating environment accounted for by the sky

• Low view factor: Weakly + and - radiation budget

• High view factor: Strongly + and - radiation budget

Other factors that affect daily and seasonal temp variability (latitude, altitude, topography/aspect, proximity to water, soil characteristics)

• Latitude:

  As latitude increases (moving away from the equator), the angle at which the sun's rays strike the Earth's surface decreases, leading to lower temperatures. 

• Altitude:

  Temperatures generally decrease with increasing altitude because the air at higher altitudes is less dense and contains less moisture, making it harder to retain heat. 

• Topography/Aspect:

  Mountain ranges and other landforms can affect temperature by influencing the amount of sunlight a region receives, as well as wind patterns and precipitation. 

• Proximity to Water:

  Large bodies of water have a moderating effect on temperatures, meaning coastal areas experience smaller temperature fluctuations than inland areas. 

• Soil Characteristics:

  Soil type and moisture content can affect how quickly land heats and cools, influencing daily temperature variations. 

Influence of soil moisture on temperature

• Moisture content(water is a poor heat conductor)

  Soil moisture significantly influences temperature, with wetter soils tending to be cooler due to the energy used for evapotranspiration (evaporation and transpiration) rather than heating the surface. Conversely, dry soils lead to warmer temperatures as less energy is used for evaporation, resulting in more heat being directed towards sensible heat fluxes

Influence of soil texture on temperature

Heat capacity

Soil texture significantly influences soil temperature, with sandy soils warming and cooling faster than clay soils due to differences in heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and water holding capacity. 

Influence of soil color on temperature

Darker soils absorb more solar radiation than lighter soils, leading to faster warming and higher temperatures, while lighter soils reflect more sunlight and remain cooler. This difference in temperature can influence soil processes and plant growth. 

Cardinal temperatures

Set of temps that define the temperature adaptations of an organism, including the temp requirements and tolerances for different life stages, life process, and parts of the organism

Effective temperatures

Range within which the existing organisms can conduct all their normal life functions and persist indefinitely

Survival temperatures

Range within which the existing organisms can survive

Homeotherms

Organism can metabolically maintain its body temp at constant level

-Narrow survival temp (internal range)

-Narrower effective temp range

Poikilotherms

Organism that can’t metabolically regulates its temp except by burrowing or basking

-Broad temp ranges

Cardinal temps for different physiological processes (excessively low)

Can slow or halt important metabolic processes
• Can disrupt phenology
• Freezing damage
– Plants (and other organisms)
are mostly water

Thermoperiodism (definition and ecological significance)

Variations in temperature due to diurnal (day/night) variations in net radiation budget.
• Seasonal changes (away from equator).
• Plants grow normally only when exposed to
diurnal & seasonal temps to which they are
adapted (thermoperiodism)

Chilling hours (definition and ecological significance)

• The cumulative hours of cold temperatures (typically below 45°F or 7°C) needed by deciduous trees and other plants to break dormancy and initiate spring growth

• This is ecologically significant because it regulates dormancy and budburst, influencing plant phenology and ecosystem processes

Heat sums/Growing degree days (definition, calculation and ecological significance)

A measure of the amount of temperature to which plants are exposed

-Aka growing degree days(GDD)

-Stake into account the average of daily temps, relative to a winter low(10 C)

-GDD are a measure of heat accumulation

GDD formula

GDD= ((T_max + T_min) /2) - T_base

_{Once a threshold of GDDs are accumulated, physiological responses(growth, flowering) are triggered}

Adaptations of plants to extreme temps

• Leaves: shape, orientation and cuticlecharacteristics

• Bark: thick bark protects against extreme heat

• Serotinous cones: only
  open upon exposure to
  high temperatures

Importance of temperature in forestry. Several examples given.

How/why does the radiation budget of clear cut/open areas differ from that of an intact forest?

-Implications for regeneration, water and nutrient cycling, etc

-Trees block a lot of radiation coming down to the floor required to grow

-Open area gets more sunlight and heat up more and cool down more

• Seedlings “plugs” typically have the majority of their root tips at the bottom

Indirect effects:
• Damage from snow/ice
• Effects of elevation/temp on same ecotype

Wind (Lecture 14)

Relationship between wind (air movement) and atmospheric pressure

• Wind: the movement of gases(air) at a large or small scale

-High pressure →low pressure

-Solar energy→thermal energy→kinetic energy

What causes differences in atmospheric pressure?

What causes pressure differences?

• Radiation budgets of the atmosphere and the surface of the earth vary in space and time

• This differential heating and cooling causes pressure differences 

Global wind patterns: Hadley, Polar and Ferrel Cells

Transport heat and influence weather patterns across the globe. 

• Hadley Cells:

  These are located near the equator, characterized by rising warm air, leading to low pressure, and sinking air at around 30° latitude, creating high-pressure zones and deserts. 

• Ferrel Cells:

  Situated in the mid-latitudes (between 30° and 60° latitude), these cells are driven by the interaction between the Hadley and Polar cells, resulting in complex circulation patterns and the prevailing westerlies. 

• Polar Cells:

  Located near the poles, these cells feature sinking cold air near the poles and rising air around 60° latitude, contributing to the formation of polar easterlies and cold, stable polar climate

Anabatic/Catabatic winds, Mountain/Valley winds

Anabatic(valley)= upward motion of warm air

Catabatic(Mountain)= downward motion of cold air

• Warm air rises up the sides and drops down into the middle after cooling

-High pressure at bottom, low at top

-Flip flops at night

Laminar flow

Different layers ride over one another w/little mixing

Occurs in sheltered forested areas; less air mixing = reduced evaporation and slower drying

Turbulent flow

Mixing from different layers

-More common

-Why does it occur:

• Friction between air and the surface

• Obstructions to laminar flow (topography,
  trees, etc)

• Repeated changes in the direction of the
  movement of a body of air

• Convectional currents

Happens in openings like clearcuts; increases drying, seed dispersal, and heat loss

Anemophily

The disseminantion of pollen by wind

Anemochary

The dissemination of reproductive propagules by wind

-Varies by species and successional status

-Rely on wind to disperse small seeds

Boundary layer (definition and ecological significance)

Thin layer of air adjacent to leaf that is modified by the leaf.
– CO2/O2
– H20
• High turbulence = Thin
boundary layer = high
transpiration
• Lowers temperature

-Can increase rates of photosynthesis, by bringing a fresh supply of CO₂

-Facilitates transpiration, but can lead to water stress

-influence ecosystem by motifying

-the area around the leaf thats modified by the physiological processes of the leaf, enriched in water vapor and oxygen, depleted in carbon dioxide

• High turbulence=thin boundary layer=high transpiration

• Lowers temperature(evaporative cooling)

Effects of wind on tree morphology

• Stunted growth

-Too much wind

-Delicate tissues in buds are really susceptible they get killed dried out

• Smaller and thicker leaves

-Minimizes water loss

• Wind “training”

• Bark damage

Other effects

• Wind tatter: foliage becomes frayed during long periods of high/turbulent air movement

• Crown tattering: 

Sustainability

Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of futuree generations to meet their own needs

Past trends in human pop.

1 bil until 2000 AD it spikes over 6 billion

Future projections in human pop.

Are we using forests sustainably?

• Total growing stock: approx 530 billion m³

worldwide

• Growing stocks are level to slightly declining. Forest area decreasing worldwide

• Loss of species diversity, increases in invasive species, massive wildfires, etc

Why is it difficult to manage forests sustainably?

• Lack of an accepted definition of what we mean by sustainability of forest ecosystems

• Lack of ability to predict the long term consequences of different forest management practices

• Lack of an adequate ecological classification system

• Lack of an understanding and/or interest among politicians who pass laws

Human evolutionary dependence on forests.

• Forests are the source of clean drinking water

• Carbon sequestration

• Our primative human ancestors were tropical tree dwellers

-food, protections from enemies, shelter from elements

• Reduction of forest areas

Pleistocene die-off

• Approx 60,000-8,000 years ago

• Mass extinction of mammals

Forestry

The science, art, business and practice of conserving and managing forests and forest lands to provide a sustained supply of forest products, forest conditions, or other desired forest values

Forest

• It is a complex ecological system

-Trees

-Other plants interact with trees(shelter, competition, benefit, antagonism)

-Animals that feed on, shelter under or benefit the plants

-Microorganisms

-Atmosphere, climate, etc

-Soil

-PEOPLE

How many stages in the development of forestry

1. Preforestry

2. Administrative forestry

3. Ecologically based forestry

4. Social forestry

Pre forestry

• Forest is simply a part of the environment

-Habitat of prey and enemies

-Provider of some necessities of life

• Low population/little technology = low demands on forest

• As population increases, demand increases. Deforestation, conflict, etc

Administrative Forestry

Goal: generally focused on industrial and/or military supplies of forest products

• Laws, regulations, rules

-Little regard to the ecological differences between different forest types across the landscape

• Fails to achieve conservation and sustainability goals

Ecologically based forestry

Goal: Sustained production of timber and other forest products

• Based on an understanding of ecological differences between forest types, sustainable yield, etc

• Usually successful, but these forest may not sustain the full range of values of “natural” forests

Social forestry

Goal: sustaining a wide range of forest conditions and values desired by society

• Ecologically and biologically sustainable

-Timber

-Watershed

-Recreation

-Biodiversity

Principle of determinism(how does it pertain to forest ecology/forest mgt)

Ecology

• Branch of biological science concerned with the distribution, abundance, and productivity of living organisms and their interactions with each other and their physical environment

• recognized as a science in the early 20th Century

Forest ecology

The basis of modern forest management

• Only by understanding the ecological characteristics of forests can we manage them successfully and sustainably

• Forest ecology provides a means of recognizing, understanding, classifying and mapping the natural variation of forests and predicting the consequences of management

Biological organization in ecology(what sciences/disciplines ie ecology built on)

Autecology

• The study of the life history and response to its environment of a single individual or species

-Life history

-Resource requirements

-Temperature tolerance

-Habitat “preference”

Population ecology

The study of the abundance, distribution, productivity, and/or dynamics of a group of organisms of the same type in a given area(and interactions with environment)

Community ecology

Description and quantification of some aspect of a natural assemblage of different species(and interaction with environment

Ecosystem Ecology

Involves all components of the biotic community and the abiotic environment(integrated system)

-Descriptive vs. functional

Ecosystem(general def + the 5 attributes)

Ecological system consisting of all of the organisms in an area and the environment with which they interact

1. Structure

Who and what is there

1. Function

Different parts have different roles

1. Complexity

2. Interaction and interdependence

3. Temporal Change

Ecosystem structure

Who and what is there