Exam 3 Study Guide - Bio 11

Comprehensive flashcards covering key topics from the cardiovascular, immune, digestive, and respiratory systems.

What are the main functions of the cardiovascular system?

To transport nutrients, oxygen, and waste products; regulate body temperature; and protect against disease.

What are the key components of the cardiovascular system?

The heart, blood vessels (arteries, veins, capillaries), and blood.

How many chambers does the human heart have?

Four.

What are the four chambers of the heart?

The left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle, and right ventricle.

What is the function of the atria in the heart?

The atria are the upper chambers that receive blood entering the heart.

What is the function of the ventricles in the heart?

The ventricles are the lower chambers that pump blood out of the heart.

What is the aorta?

The largest artery in the body, which carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle to the rest of the body.

What are pulmonary arteries?

Arteries that carry deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle of the heart to the lungs.

What type of blood do pulmonary arteries carry?

Deoxygenated blood.

What are pulmonary veins?

Veins that carry oxygenated blood from the lungs back to the left atrium of the heart.

What type of blood do pulmonary veins carry?

Oxygenated blood.

What are arteries?

Blood vessels that primarily carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the body's tissues (except for pulmonary arteries).

What are veins?

Blood vessels that primarily carry deoxygenated blood back to the heart from the body's tissues (except for pulmonary veins).

What are capillaries?

The smallest blood vessels where gas, nutrient, and waste exchange occur efficiently between blood and tissues.

What is vasoconstriction?

The narrowing of blood vessels, which reduces blood flow and can increase blood pressure.

What is vasodilation?

The widening of blood vessels, which increases blood flow and can decrease blood pressure.

What is the purpose of vasoconstriction and vasodilation?

To regulate blood flow and pressure throughout the body in response to various needs, such as temperature regulation or exercise.

What is the pulmonary circuit?

The circuit involving blood flow between the heart and the lungs for gas exchange (oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide release).

What is the systemic circuit?

The circuit involving blood flow from the heart to the rest of the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients and collecting waste products.

What is the coronary circuit?

The specific circuit that supplies oxygenated blood and nutrients directly to the heart muscle itself.

What does blood pressure measure?

The force of blood against the walls of blood vessels.

What is systolic blood pressure?

The pressure in the arteries when the heart contracts and pumps blood out (the top number in a blood pressure reading).

What is diastolic blood pressure?

The pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest, between beats (the bottom number in a blood pressure reading).

What is a normal value for blood pressure?

A normal blood pressure reading is typically around 120/80 mmHg (millimeters of mercury).

What are pacemaker cells?

Specialized cells in the heart (primarily in the sinoatrial node) that spontaneously generate electrical impulses to regulate the heart's rhythm.

What is atherosclerosis?

A condition where plaque (a buildup of fats, cholesterol, and other substances) hardens and narrows the arteries, restricting blood flow.

Why is atherosclerosis a problem?

It reduces blood flow, increasing the risk of blood clots, heart attacks, strokes, and peripheral artery disease.

What happens during a heart attack?

A heart attack occurs when blood flow to a segment of the heart muscle is severely reduced or blocked, causing that muscle tissue to be damaged or die.

What are some ways to promote heart health?

Regular exercise, a balanced diet, not smoking, and managing stress.

How does regular exercise benefit heart health?

It strengthens the heart muscle, improves circulation, lowers blood pressure, and helps maintain a healthy weight.

How does a balanced diet benefit heart health?

It helps manage cholesterol and blood pressure, reduces inflammation, and provides essential nutrients, typically by focusing on fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and lean proteins.

Why is avoiding smoking crucial for heart health?

Smoking damages blood vessels, reduces oxygen to the heart, increases blood pressure, and raises the risk of blood clots, leading to heart disease and stroke.

How does stress management contribute to heart health?

Chronic stress can increase blood pressure and heart rate, contributing to heart disease; managing stress helps mitigate these risks.

What are some causes of high blood pressure?

Causes include obesity, high salt intake, lack of physical activity, chronic stress, excessive alcohol consumption, and genetics.

How does obesity contribute to high blood pressure?

Excess weight requires the heart to work harder to pump blood throughout the body, increasing pressure on artery walls.

How does high salt intake contribute to high blood pressure?

Excess sodium causes the body to retain fluid, which increases blood volume and, consequently, blood pressure.

How does lack of physical activity contribute to high blood pressure?

Inactivity can lead to obesity and has been directly linked to higher blood pressure.

Can genetics cause high blood pressure?

Yes, a family history of high blood pressure (hypertension) increases an individual's risk.

What are the different types of blood cells?

Red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes).

What is the function of red blood cells (erythrocytes)?

To transport oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues and carry carbon dioxide back to the lungs.

What is the function of white blood cells (leukocytes)?

To defend the body against infection and disease as a key part of the immune system.

What is the function of platelets (thrombocytes)?

To initiate blood clotting and help stop bleeding at the site of injury.

Where are blood cells formed?

Blood cells are primarily formed in the red bone marrow, mostly in the flat bones like the sternum and pelvis, and the ends of long bones.

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

It helps remove excess fluid (lymph) from tissues, absorbs fats from the digestive system, and plays a key role in immune function by transporting immune cells.

What is a pathogen?

A microorganism that can cause disease, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites.

Can you treat a viral infection with antibiotics?

No, antibiotics are specifically designed to kill bacteria and are ineffective against viral infections; they do not target viruses.

What is the first line of defense in your immune system?

Physical and chemical barriers that prevent pathogens from entering the body, such as skin, mucous membranes, saliva, tears, and stomach acid.

What is the second line of defense in your immune system?

The non-specific (innate) immune response, involving general immune cells like phagocytes (e.g., macrophages, neutrophils) and processes like inflammation and fever.

What are examples of non-specific immune responses in the second line of defense?

Phagocytosis (cells engulfing pathogens), inflammation, fever, and natural killer cells.

What is the third line of defense in your immune system?

The specific (adaptive or acquired) immune response, which targets specific pathogens using specialized white blood cells (lymphocytes: B cells and T cells) and antibodies, leading to immunological memory.

How does your skin help prevent infection?

Skin acts as a physical barrier against pathogens and produces antimicrobial substances (like sweat and sebum) that inhibit microbial growth.

What are antigens?

Substances, often proteins or carbohydrates found on the surface of pathogens or foreign cells, that trigger a specific immune response.

What are antibodies?

Proteins produced by the immune system (specifically by B cells) that specifically recognize and bind to antigens, neutralizing pathogens or marking them for destruction by other immune cells.

What are memory cells?

Long-lasting immune cells (B cells and T cells) that 'remember' past infections. Upon re-exposure to the same pathogen, they enable a faster, stronger, and more effective immune response.

What is immunity?

The ability of an organism to resist a particular infection or toxin through the action of specific antibodies or sensitized white blood cells.

What is a vaccine?

A biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease. It typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism, which stimulates the body's immune system to produce antibodies.

What is the function of the digestive system?

To break down food into smaller nutrient molecules that the body can absorb and use for energy, growth, and repair, and to eliminate undigested waste.

What is mechanical digestion?

The physical breakdown of food into smaller pieces, primarily through chewing (mastication) in the mouth and the churning action of the stomach.

What is chemical digestion?

The enzymatic breakdown of complex food molecules into simpler, absorbable molecules (e.g., proteins into amino acids, complex carbohydrates into simple sugars) using digestive enzymes.

What are the stages of digestion?

Ingestion (taking in food), digestion (breaking down food), absorption (taking nutrients into the blood), and elimination (removing undigested waste).

What occurs during the ingestion stage of digestion?

The process of taking food into the mouth.

What occurs during the absorption stage of digestion?

Nutrients (small molecules) move from the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract into the bloodstream or lymphatic system to be transported throughout the body.

What occurs during the elimination stage of digestion?

The expulsion of undigested food and waste material (feces) from the body through the anus.

What does it mean if an organ is part of the GI tract?

It means the organ forms part of the continuous tube (alimentary canal) through which food passes, from the mouth to the anus.

Name the main organs that form the GI tract.

The mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus.

What is peristalsis?

A series of wave-like muscle contractions that propel food through the esophagus and the rest of the tubular digestive tract.

What are sphincters and their purpose in the digestive system?

Sphincters are circular muscles that act as valves to control the passage of food and prevent backflow between different sections of the GI tract (e.g., esophageal sphincter, pyloric sphincter).

What is the function of the epiglottis?

The epiglottis is a flap of cartilage located at the base of the tongue that covers the opening of the trachea (windpipe) during swallowing to prevent food from entering the airway.

What is the function of the appendix?

The appendix is a small, finger-shaped organ thought to play a role in maintaining gut flora and immune function, though its exact purpose isn't fully understood and it's not essential for digestion.

What is the role of the liver in digestion?

The liver produces bile, which aids in fat digestion, and processes absorbed nutrients from the small intestine, detoxifying harmful substances.

What is the role of the gallbladder in digestion?

The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile produced by the liver, releasing it into the small intestine when needed for fat digestion.

What is the role of the pancreas in digestion?

The pancreas produces pancreatic juice containing digestive enzymes (for carbohydrates, proteins, and fats) and bicarbonate (to neutralize stomach acid), along with hormones like insulin.

Where does lipid digestion primarily occur?

Lipid digestion primarily occurs in the small intestine with the aid of bile (for emulsification) and pancreatic lipase (for enzymatic breakdown).

Where does starch digestion begin and where is it primarily completed?

Starch digestion begins in the mouth with salivary amylase and is primarily completed in the small intestine with pancreatic amylase.

Where does protein digestion begin and where is it primarily completed?

Protein digestion begins in the stomach with pepsin and is primarily completed in the small intestine with enzymes like trypsin and chymotrypsin.

How is bile used in digestion?

Bile, produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder, emulsifies fats in the small intestine, breaking them into smaller droplets (micelles) to increase their surface area for easier enzymatic digestion by lipases.

What government agency regulates food in the United States?

The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) regulates the safety of most foods, dietary supplements, and medications in the U.S.

What do calories measure?

Calories measure the amount of energy provided by food when metabolized by the body.

What is your basal metabolic rate (BMR)?

The basal metabolic rate is the number of calories the body burns at rest to maintain essential life-sustaining functions such as breathing, circulation, body temperature regulation, and cell production.

What are macronutrients?

Nutrients required in large quantities by the body, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, which provide energy and building blocks for tissues.

What are micronutrients?

Vitamins and minerals that the body needs in smaller quantities for various metabolic processes, growth, and overall health.

List the three primary macronutrients.

Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

What are carbohydrates and their primary role?

Carbohydrates are the body's primary source of energy, providing glucose for cellular function. They include sugars, starches, and fiber.

What are proteins and their primary role?

Proteins are essential for building and repairing tissues, making enzymes and hormones, and supporting immune function. They are composed of amino acids.

What are fats (lipids) and their primary role?

Fats are crucial for energy storage, absorbing fat-soluble vitamins, forming cell membranes, and hormone production. They also provide insulation and protect organs.

What are vitamins?

Organic compounds that are essential for normal growth, metabolism, immune function, and overall health, obtained from diet because the body usually cannot synthesize them.

Why are vitamins considered micronutrients?

Vitamins are organic compounds needed in relatively small amounts for specific biological functions; they do not provide energy directly but facilitate metabolic processes.

What are minerals (nutritional)?

Inorganic elements (e.g., calcium, iron, potassium) that are vital for various bodily functions, including bone structure, nerve function, fluid balance, and enzyme activity.

Why are minerals considered micronutrients?

Minerals are inorganic elements needed in relatively small quantities for proper physiological function; like vitamins, they do not provide energy directly but play crucial roles in maintaining health.

How is fiber involved in nutrition?

Fiber, a type of carbohydrate, aids in digestion by promoting bowel regularity, helps regulate blood sugar levels, promotes satiety (feeling full), and supports a healthy gut microbiome.

What is weight stigma?

Weight stigma refers to discrimination, prejudice, or stereotyping against individuals based on their body weight, which can have significant negative impacts on both mental and physical health.

What is the Body Mass Index (BMI)?

The Body Mass Index (BMI) is a measure used to estimate body fat based on a person's height and weight, calculated as \text{BMI} = \frac{\text{weight (kg)}}{\text{height (m)}^2}.

What are some limitations of BMI?

BMI does not account for muscle mass, body composition (the ratio of fat to muscle), fat distribution (where fat is stored), age, sex, or ethnicity, leading to potential misclassifications of health status.

Why doesn't BMI fully account for muscle mass?

Muscle is denser than fat, so a highly muscular individual might have a high BMI and be classified as overweight or obese, despite having very low body fat.

How does fat distribution affect BMI interpretation?

BMI does not differentiate between different types of fat distribution. For example, abdominal fat (visceral fat) carries higher health risks than fat distributed around the hips and thighs, but BMI doesn't distinguish this.

What are some common nutrition misconceptions?

Misconceptions include ideas like: 'all fats are bad,' 'cutting gluten is necessary for everyone,' 'carbs are always unhealthy,' 'detox diets are effective,' or 'eating after 7 PM causes weight gain.'

Why is the misconception that 'all fats are bad' inaccurate?

Some fats, particularly unsaturated fats found in avocados, nuts, and olive oil, are essential for health, provide energy, and help absorb fat-soluble vitamins.

Why is the misconception that 'carbs are always unhealthy' inaccurate?

Complex carbohydrates (e.g., whole grains, fruits, vegetables) are vital sources of energy, fiber, and essential nutrients, and are crucial for a balanced diet.

Why are 'detox diets' generally not effective or necessary?

The human body has highly effective natural detoxification systems, primarily carried out by the liver and kidneys, making 'detox diets' largely unnecessary and often lacking scientific support.

What are the main functions of the respiratory system?

To facilitate gas exchange by bringing oxygen into the body for cellular respiration and removing carbon dioxide, a waste product, from the body.