APES Unit 5 | AP Exam Review

Tragedy of the Commons

Suggests that individuals will use shared resources in their own self-interest rather than in keeping w/ the common good, thereby depleting the resources

Regulate Use (Sustainable Use of the Commons)

Regulate Use:

• Hunting/fishing licenses

• Land use permits

• Country quotas (pollution, fish harvest, etc.)

• Selective cutting of trees

Replenish After Use (Sustainable Use of the Commons)

• Replant trees

• Throw back fish that are gravid

• Rotate which grasslands are used for grazing

Ensure Compliance (Sustainable Use of the Commons)

• Treaties

• Laws

• Oversight of treaties/laws

  • Fines

  • Incentives — Subsidies, debt forgiveness, etc.

Sustainable Use of the Commons

Privatize commons to incentivize care of the commons

• Doesn’t work in all situations (ie. oceans)

Forest Ecosystem & Ecological Services

• Serves as a habitat

• Aids in soil formation / retention

• Moderates local climate

• Serves as a food source

• Removes air / water pollutants

• Increases albedo of Earth

• Serves a role in biogeochemical cycles — water, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus

Economic Benefits Provided by Forests

• Grazing for livestock

• Agricultural land for shade-tolerant plants

• Ecotourism & aesthetics-related use

• Impact on nearby real estate values

• Source of agricultural products

• Source of potential medicine

• Source of land for other uses — Agriculture, mining, residences

Clearcutting

A forestry practice where most or all trees in a designated area are removed at the same time

Negative Clearcutting Impacts

• Habitats & food sources for organisms & humans

• Soil

• Biogeochemical cycles

• Air / water quality

• Earth’s albedo & climate

• Economic choices related to intact forests

Losses in Terrestrial Environments & Atmosphere from Clearcutting

• Habitat / Biodiversity

• Economic opportunities

• Food sources

• Aesthetic value

Increases in Terrestrial Environments & Atmosphere from Clearcutting

• Albedo

• Soil erosion / Desertification

• Water evaporation from soil

• Air pollution / climate change

Decreases in Terrestrial Environments & Atmosphere from Clearcutting

• Infiltration

• Soil formation

• Transpiration

Impacts of Clearcutting on Aquatic Environments

Increase in turbidity

• Decrease in aquatic primary productivity

• Decrease in albedo

Increase in water temp.

• Decrease in dissolved oxygen (DO) levels

Increase in nutrient load

• Eutrophication

Loss of habitat / biodiversity

Green Revolution

Started a shift to new agricultural strategies & practices in order to increase food production, with both positive & negative results

• Strategies include: Mechanization, genetically modified organisms (GMOs), fertilization, irrigation, & the use of pesticides

Mechanization of Farming

• Machinery doesn't have the drawbacks of living labor

• Can be specialized & updated

• Easy to use

• Efficiency leads to higher profits

Fossil Fuel Use in Mechanization

• Extraction

• Combustion

• Reliance

Artificial Fertilizers

• Releases nutrients over time

• Can be customized for the type of plant

• Mass produced Easily shipped & stored

• Easily & quickly dispersed

• No objectionable smell

• Ensure higher yield due to maximized growth potential

Artificial Pesticides (Pros)

• Herbicide, insecticide, fungicide

• Can be customized for the type of pest

• Mass produced

• Easily shipped & stored

• Easily & quickly dispersed

• Ensure higher yield due to minimized loss due to pest damage

Artificial Pesticides (Cons)

• Possible extermination of nontarget species

• Persistence

• Possible human health effects

• Contamination of groundwater

• Evolution of pesticide-resistant pests (pesticide treadmill)

Artificial Selection

Human-directed evolution that selects for traits beneficial to humans based on the genetic material available

Creation of GMOs

Human-directed evolution that selects for traits beneficial to humans that takes advantage of the genetic material of normally-incompatible species, thus creating new traits in the host species

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs)

• Creates crops that can grow on land once unusable for agriculture

  • Drought & heat resistant, salt-tolerant

• Crops can be herbicide resistant

  • Easy & early application of herbicide w/o crop damage

• Crops can produce their own insecticide

  • Reduces use of artificial insecticides

• Semiarid & arid lands converted to agriculture have low-nutrient soil

• Weeds can become herbcide-resistant w/ excess use of herbicide

• Bt crops may kill nontarget species

• Bt crops can lead to insecticide-resistant pests

• Moral/ethical/economic issues w/ patented genetic modification

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Advantages

Expand range & hardiness of crop plants

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) Disadvantages

• Unintended environmental consequences

• Pesticide treadmill

• Impacts on human society

Tilling

Bare soil → Soil erosion, evaporation

• Eutrophication

• Need for fertilization

Turned soil → Impacts soil structure

Turned soil → Sequestered carbon released as CO₂

Slash & Burn Agriculture

• Developing countries

• Typically tropical rainforest

  • Low nutrient soil

• Subsistence farmers

• Ash used as fertilizer

Unsustainable Slash & Burn Agriculture

• Nutrients provided by ash quickly used

• Cut down new plot of land for crops

Organic Fertilizer (Pros & Cons)

• Manure, compost, fish meal

• Universal

• Distribution issues

• Supports soil structure

Synthetic Fertilizer (Pros & Cons)

• Harber-Bosch process

• Ease of use

• Can be overused → Eutrophication

Synthetic Pesticides (Pros & Cons)

• Can lead to pesticide-resistant pests → Overuse

Haber-Bosch Process

An industrial process used to convert nitrogen and hydrogen gases into ammonia (NH₃)

Eutrophication

The process where a water body becomes excessively enriched w/ nutrients, leading to a bloom of algae & other aquatic plants

Irrigation

The supply of water to land or crops to help growth, typically by means of channels.

Flood Irrigation

A method in which the entire field is ponded with flooded water

Pros of Flood Irrigation

• Easy

• Inexpensive

• Mechanization not required

Cons of Flood Irrigation

• Requires water nearby

• Not for all plant types

• Land must be graded

• Levees needed

• 20% of water lost to evaporation

• Waterlogging / salinization

Furrow Irrigation

A small, shallow trench or channel used to convey water to crops, particularly in surface irrigation methods

Pros of Furrow Irrigation

• Low investment

• High-sediment water can be used

• Allows for some precision of application

Cons of Furrow Irrigation

• Not efficiently on sandy soil

• Difficult to apply small amounts

• 33% of water lost to evaporatio

• Soil erosion

Spray Irrigation

A method of applying water to land in a controlled manner, similar to rainfall

Pros of Spray Irrigation

• Precision application

• Supplements can be introduced into the water

• Efficient - 25% or less lost to evaporation

• Can be programmed to run at certain times of day

Cons of Spray Irrigation

• Larger up-front cost than flood / furrow irrigation

• Can include machinery run w/ electricity / fossil fuel use

• Nozzles can clog

• Pivot systems can wear ruts in soil

Drip Irrigation

A method of applying water directly to the roots of plants through a network of tubes, pipes, valves, & emitters

Pros of Drip Irrigation

• Very low evaporation rates (5%)

• Reduces nutrient leaching

• No land grading needed

Cons of Drip Irrigation

• Very expensive, clogs easily

• Requires mechanization

• Placement makes other processes difficult

Waterlogging

When something is saturated with water, often to the point of being heavy, soggy, or even submerged

Salinization

The process where soil becomes increasingly salty, often due to the buildup of salt-containing groundwater or the evaporation of saline water

Aquifer

A body of permeable rock which can contain or transmit groundwater.

Aquifer Overuse

Occurs when groundwater is extracted from an aquifer faster than it can be replenished

Pesticide Overuse

• Environmental contamination

• Harm to human and animal health

• Development of pesticide resistance

Pesticide Treadmill

Cycle where pests develop resistance to pesticides, forcing farmers to use increasingly more potent and toxic chemicals to control them, leading to a vicious cycle of resistance and chemical escalation

Monoculture

The practice of growing a single crop on a given acreage

Meat Production

The raising of cattle, chickens, turkey, pigs, sheep, goats, or any other livestock for consumption by humans

Animal Waste & Lowered DO Levels

Increase in turbidity

• Decrease in aquatic primary productivity & albedo

Increase in water temp

• Decrease in DO levels

Increase in organic matter / nutrient load

• Increase in decomposition by aerobic bacteria

• Decrease in DO levels

• Eutrophication

Crop Production

• X amount of land

• Water use for crops

• No greenhouse gas emissions from crops

• No direct link to disease-causing bacteria

• X amount of calories

• No chemical enhancements

• Minimal soil structure impact

Meat Production

• 20X amount of land

• Water use for crop to feed meat, water use for meat

• Methane emissions from beef N₂O emissions from decomposing waste

• Fecal coliforms

• 10% of X calories (10% rule due to trophic level transmission of caloric energy)

• Antibiotics & growth hormone used

• Compacted soil

Reduced Meat Consumption

• Reduce CO2 methane, & N2O emissions

• Conserve water

• Reduce the ue of antibiotics & growth hormone

• Improve topsoil

Concentrated Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO)

Can raise cattle, chickens, turkeys, pigs, sheep, goats, or any other livestock for consumption by humans

• Large but efficient

• Crowded & create a lot of waste

Pros of CAFO

• More-efficient means of production

• Uses less land per head of livestock than other methods

Cons of CAFO

Large concentrated areas of animal waste

• Possible water contamination

• Possibility of infectious pathogen

• Antibiotic / growth hormone use

Free Range Grazing

Livestock have access to the outdoors for at least part of the day, allowing them to roam and graze on natural vegetation

Overgrazing

The practice of grazing too many livestock for too long a period on land unable to recover its vegetation

Pros of Free-Range Meat Production

• Animals eat natural food sources

• No preventative antibiotic use

• Waste spread over a larger area by fewer animals

Cons of Free-Range Meat Production

• Possible tragedy of the commons via overgrazing

  • Soil degredation

  • Water pollution

  • Desertification

• Large land use per animal

• Higher cost for consumers than other methods

Commercial Fishing

• Long-line

• Drift-net / Gill net

• Purse seine

• Trawling

• Sonar

Long Line Fishing

A commercial fishing technique where a long, horizontal fishing line with many baited hooks is deployed to catch fish

Drift-net / Gill net

A technique where large nets, suspended vertically in the water column, are allowed to drift with the current

Purse Seine Fishing

A method where a large wall of netting is used to surround and trap schools of fish, particularly those that gather near the surface

Trawling Fishing

A fishing method where a large net, called a trawl, is pulled through the water to catch fish

Sonar Fishing

Using sonar technology to locate fish and underwater structures

Sustainable Fishing

• Catch limits based on MSY (maximum sustainable yield)

• Limit age/size of fish caught

• Modify techniques to reduce bycatch

• Laws/treaties that protect critical species

Mining

• Gold

• Diamonds

• Phosphorus - Bearing rock

• Gravel

• Coal

Refining

Industrial process that removes impurities from a substance

Open-Pit Mining (Surface Mining)

A technique used to extract rock & minerals from the earth by excavating large, open pits at the surface.

Strip Mining (Surface Mining)

Technique where soil & rock (overburden) are removed to extract mineral deposits, typically coal, that are close to the earth's surface

Mountaintop Removal (Surface Mining)

The tops of mountains are cleared away to access coal seams underneath

Environmental Consequences of Mining

• Water & air pollution

• Soil contamination

• Habitat destruction

• Deforestation

Acid Mine Drainage

Acidic water rich in heavy metals that forms when water interacts w/ rocks containing sulfur-bearing minerals, particularly pyrite, during mining activities

Cyanide Heap Leaching

A mining process where cyanide solution is trickled over crushed ore stacked in open-air pads to extract gold and silver

Consequences of Abandoned Mines

• Soil erosion

• Desertification

• Loss of habitat & biodiversity

• Soil-laden runoff into nearby bodies of water

• Acid mine drainage

• Leaks from cyanide heap leaching

Mine Remediation

The process of restoring land disturbed by mining activities to a stable and ecologically functional state

Urban Sprawl

Change in population distribution from high population density areas to low density suburbs that spread into rural lands, leading to potential environmental problems

Pros of Urbanization

• Reduce poverty & inequity

  • Improves employment opportunities

  • Improves quality of life through better education & health

• Technological & industrial advancements

• Improved transportation & communication

Cons of Urbanization

• Negatively impacts water cycle

  • Saltwater intrusion

  • Impermeable surface

• Negatively impacts carbon cycle

  • Air pollution

• Causes heat islands

Heat Island (Urbanization)

An urban area that is significantly warmer than its surrounding rural areas

Ecological Footprint

A measure of how many resources a person uses, expressed in an area of land

• Carbon footprint (Energy)

• Built-up land (Settlements)

• Forests (Timber & paper)

• Cropland & pasture (Food & fiber)

• Fisheries (Seafood)

Sustainability

The ability to use & maintain a resource indefinitely or for future generations

• Biological diversity

• Food production

• Global surface Temperatures & CO₂ Concentrations

• Human population

• Resource depletion

Biological Diversity (Sustainability)

Healthier ecosystems are resistant to disturbances

• Preserve nature

Food Production (Sustainability)

Poor practices lead to soil segregation & water pollution

• Sustainable food practices

Global Surface Temperatures & CO₂ Concentrations (Sustainability)

Excessive CO₂ increases global temps creating climate change

• Decrease energy use

Human Population (Sustainability)

Exponential population growth stresses our planet

• Demographic transition

Resource Depletion (Sustainability)

Will this resource be available in the future

• Reduce, reuse, recycle

Sustainable Yield

The amount of a renewable resource that can be taken w/o reducing the availability supply

MSY

Maximum Sustainable Yield

Major Problems of Urban Runoff

• Water pollution

• Inability to recharge our ground water

Permeable Pavement (Urban Runoff)

Allows water to infiltrate

Planting Trees (Urban Runoff)

Trees increase the permeability of soils

Smart City Design (Urban Runoff)

Having multiple homes built in less space decreases paved areas.

Integrated Pest Management (IPM)

A combination of methods used to reduce & eliminate pest species

• Biological, physical, & chemical controls

• Includes crop rotation & intercropping

Biological Controls (IPM)

• Farm pets

• Parasitic wasps

• Praying mantis

• Ladybugs

• Green lacewings

• Specific bacteria & fungi