WGSS/RGS 101 Identity and Power

Action - Jacob's WSS ATS Lines

Microbiology — Important Test Questions 1. What are microorganisms? Organisms too small to be seen with the unaided eye/ Human eye. 2. What are the major types of microbes? Bacteria, archaea, fungi, protozoa, algae, and viruses. 3. Are all microbes harmful? No. Most are helpful or harmless; only some are pathogenic. (Disease causing) 4. What are some important benefits of microbes? They decompose waste, produce oxygen, make foods and chemicals, and produce useful products such as insulin. (Medicine) Naming Microorganisms 5. What are the two parts of a scientific name? Genus and specific epithet. 6. How are scientific names written? The genus is capitalized, the specific epithet is lowercase, and both are italicized or underlined. 7. How is a scientific name abbreviated? The genus is shortened to its first letter. Example: Escherichia coli → E. coli. Bacteria -single cell 8. Are bacteria prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Prokaryotic. 9. Do bacteria have a nucleus? No. 10. What is found in bacterial cell walls? Peptidoglycan cell wall 11. How do bacteria reproduce? Binary fission. 12. How can bacteria obtain nutrition? From organic chemicals, inorganic chemicals, or photosynthesis. Archaea- single cell 13. Are archaea prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Prokaryotic. 14. Do archaea have peptidoglycan in their cell walls? No. 15. Where are many archaea found?c Extreme environments. 16. What are the three major groups of archaea mentioned? Methanogens, extreme halophiles, and extreme thermophiles. Fungi - can be mult 17. Are fungi prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Eukaryotic. 18. What is found in fungal cell walls? Chitin. 19. How do fungi obtain energy? They absorb organic chemicals. 20. What is the difference between yeast and molds? Yeasts are unicellular; molds are multicellular. 21. What are hyphae? Filaments that make up fungal mycelia. Protozoa- single cell 22. Are protozoa prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Eukaryotic. 23. How do protozoa obtain nutrients? They absorb or ingest organic chemicals. 24. How can protozoa move? Using pseudopods, cilia, or flagella. 25. Can protozoa be parasitic? Yes. Algae -can be mult 26. Are algae prokaryotic or eukaryotic? Eukaryotic. 27. What is found in algal cell walls? Cellulose. 28. How do algae obtain energy? Photosynthesis. 29. What do algae produce through photosynthesis? Oxygen and carbohydrates. Viruses- not living 30. Are viruses cellular? No. They are acellular. 31. What genetic material do viruses contain? DNA or RNA. 32. What surrounds the viral genetic material? A protein coat. 33. Can viruses reproduce on their own? No. They replicate only inside living host cells. Can only be seen in microsocp 34. What are viruses like outside a living host cell? They are inert. Classification 35. What are the three domains? Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. 36. Who developed the three-domain system? Carl Woese. History of Microbiology 37. Who first observed microorganisms? Anton van Leeuwenhoek. 38. Who helped establish the idea that living things are made of cells? Robert Hooke. 39. What is cell theory? All living things are composed of cells. Pasteur & Fermentation 40. What did Pasteur show about fermentation? Microorganisms are responsible for fermentation. 41. What is fermentation? The microbial conversion of sugar to alcohol in the absence of air. 42. What is pasteurization? Using high heat for a short time to kill harmful bacteria in beverages. 43. Why is pasteurization important? It helps prevent microbial spoilage and kills harmful bacteria. Major Fields 47. What is bacteriology? Study of bacteria. 48. What is mycology? Study of fungi. 49. What is parasitology? Study of protozoa and parasitic worms. 50. What is immunology? Study of immunity. 51. What is virology? Study of viruses. Penicillin 44. Who discovered penicillin? Alexander Fleming. 45. What organism produced penicillin? The fungus Penicillium. 46. What type of microorganism did penicillin kill in Fleming's observation? Staphylococcus aureus bacteria. Genetics & Biotechnology 52. What is microbial genetics? Study of how microbes inherit traits. 53. What is molecular biology? How DNA directs protein synthesis. 54. What is genomics? Study of an organism's genes. 55. What is recombinant DNA? . DNA made from two different sources. 56. What is gene therapy? Replacing missing or defective genes in human cells Microbial Ecology & Biotechnology 57. What is microbial ecology? Study of the relationship between microorganisms and their environment. 58. What is bioremediation? Using microorganisms to clean up or detoxify pollutants. 59. How can bacteria help the environment? They can break down sewage and pollutants such as oil. 60. What is biotechnology? Using microorganisms for practical purposes, such as producing foods, chemicals, proteins, vaccines, and enzymes. Microbiota & Biofilms 61. What is microbiota? The microorganisms normally present in or on the body. 62. What is a biofilm? A mass of microorganisms attached to a solid surface. 63. Why are biofilms important medically? They can cause infections and are often resistant to antibiotics. 64. What does “pathogenic” mean? Disease-producing; capable of causing disease. 65. What is binary fission? A process in which one bacterial cell divides into two cells. 71. What did Anton van Leeuwenhoek call the microorganisms he observed? “Animalcules.” 74. Why is Bacillus thuringiensis useful in agriculture? It kills many harmful insects but is harmless to animals and plants, making it an alternative to chemical pesticides. All microorganisms that regularly populate the human body are referred to as the human microbiome

WGSS 300: Feminist Theory Syllabus Vocabulary

Absolutely. Your list is very broad, so the best way to study it is not to memorize every disease. We can turn it into a high-yield nursing reviewer based on: What is it? → What will I see? → What should I assess? → What should I do? → What medications/treatments matter? → What is the priority/emergency? → What should I teach? Below is a condensed master reviewer. I’ll keep it nursing-focused and use simple language. ⸻ 🩺 MEDICAL-SURGICAL NURSING REVIEWER 1. ENDOCRINE SYSTEM Diabetes Mellitus Type 1 Type 2 Main problem Little/no insulin Insulin resistance + progressive insulin deficiency Usually Younger onset, but can occur any age More common in adults Treatment Insulin required Lifestyle + oral/injectable meds ± insulin Major acute problems DKA HHS Signs of hyperglycemia “3 Ps” * Polyuria – urinating frequently * Polydipsia – excessive thirst * Polyphagia – excessive hunger Other: * Fatigue * Blurred vision * Slow wound healing * Recurrent infections Hypoglycemia Think FAST: * F – Feeling shaky * A – Altered behaviour/confusion * S – Sweating * T – Tachycardia Treatment if conscious: 15 g fast carbohydrate → recheck glucose in 15 min → repeat if necessary. Examples: * Glucose tablets * Juice * Regular pop If unconscious/severe: * Glucagon if appropriate * IV dextrose in a healthcare setting DKA Usually associated with Type 1. Think: Hyperglycemia + ketones + metabolic acidosis Signs: * Dehydration * Abdominal pain * Nausea/vomiting * Fruity/acetone breath * Kussmaul respirations * Altered LOC Priority treatment: 1. IV fluids 2. Insulin 3. Monitor/correct electrolytes, especially potassium 4. Monitor glucose and acid-base status HHS Usually Type 2. * Extremely high glucose * Severe dehydration * Altered LOC * Little/no significant ketoacidosis Major nursing priority: fluid replacement and monitoring. Diabetes teaching Remember: * Foot care * Inspect feet daily * Proper footwear * Don’t walk barefoot * Don’t cut corns/calluses yourself * Monitor blood glucose * Know signs of hypo/hyperglycemia * Medication adherence * Sick-day management * Regular eye/kidney/foot assessments ⸻ ❤️ 2. CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM Stroke Two major types: * Ischemic → blocked blood vessel * Hemorrhagic → bleeding Recognize stroke: BE FAST B – Balance loss E – Eye/vision changes F – Face drooping A – Arm weakness S – Speech difficulty T – Time to call emergency services Nursing priorities * ABCs * Determine last known well * Neurological assessment * Blood glucose * Prepare for CT/imaging * Swallow assessment before oral food/fluids/medications * Prevent aspiration * Maintain safety Do not give food or water until swallowing is assessed. ⸻ Myocardial Infarction (MI) Think: “Time = muscle.” Common symptoms: * Chest pressure/pain * Radiation to arm/jaw/back * Dyspnea * Diaphoresis * Nausea * Anxiety Some patients, especially older adults and people with diabetes, may have atypical or minimal pain. Nursing priorities * ABCs * ECG * Vital signs * Cardiac monitoring * IV access * Blood work including cardiac biomarkers * Oxygen if hypoxemic/clinically indicated * Administer prescribed medications promptly Common medications: * Aspirin * Nitroglycerin * Antiplatelet drugs * Anticoagulants * Beta blockers * Statins Nitroglycerin Can cause: * Hypotension * Headache * Dizziness Never combine nitrates with PDE-5 inhibitors because of potentially severe hypotension. ⸻ Heart Failure Left-sided Think Lungs * Dyspnea * Crackles * Orthopnea * Pulmonary edema * Pink/frothy sputum in severe pulmonary edema Right-sided Think Body * Peripheral edema * Weight gain * JVD * Hepatomegaly * Ascites Nursing priorities * Daily weight * I&O * Respiratory assessment * Edema assessment * Fluid/sodium management as ordered * Medication adherence Sudden weight gain can indicate fluid retention. Common drugs: * Diuretics * ACE inhibitors/ARBs/ARNI * Beta blockers * Mineralocorticoid antagonists * SGLT2 inhibitors * Digoxin in selected patients Digoxin Watch for: * Bradycardia * Nausea/vomiting * Visual disturbances * Dysrhythmias Low potassium increases risk of digoxin toxicity. ⸻ Peripheral Vascular Disease Arterial Think: “Pain + Pale + Pulseless + Cold” * Cool extremity * Weak pulses * Pale colour * Pain with activity * Poor wound healing Venous Think: “Swollen + Warm + Edema” * Edema * Warm skin * Aching * Venous ulcers often near ankles ⸻ 🩸 3. HEMATOLOGY Anemia Reduced oxygen-carrying capacity. Signs: * Fatigue * Pallor * Weakness * Dyspnea * Tachycardia * Dizziness Iron-deficiency anemia May see: * Low hemoglobin * Low ferritin * Microcytic/hypochromic RBCs Iron teaching: * Take as directed * Vitamin C can improve absorption * Dark stools are common * Constipation can occur * Liquid iron may stain teeth ⸻ Leukemia Cancer of blood-forming tissues. Possible findings: * Infection → abnormal WBC function * Anemia → fatigue/pallor * Bleeding → low platelets * Bone/joint pain Think: Leukemia = infection + anemia + bleeding Nursing priorities: * Infection prevention * Bleeding precautions when indicated * Monitor CBC * Oral care * Avoid unnecessary invasive procedures * Monitor treatment adverse effects ⸻ 🍽️ 4. GASTROINTESTINAL SYSTEM Crohn’s vs Colitis Crohn’s Ulcerative Colitis Can affect anywhere mouth → anus Colon/rectum “Skip lesions” Continuous inflammation Transmural Mainly mucosal Fistulas common Bloody diarrhea common Strictures possible Toxic megacolon risk Crohn’s Watch for: * Diarrhea * Abdominal pain * Weight loss * Malnutrition * Fistulas Ulcerative colitis Watch for: * Bloody diarrhea * Abdominal cramps * Urgency * Risk of toxic megacolon ⸻ Diverticulitis Inflammation/infection of diverticula. Signs: * Usually LLQ abdominal pain * Fever * Change in bowel habits During acute inflammation: * Follow prescribed bowel-rest/diet plan * Monitor pain, fever and abdominal status * Watch for perforation/peritonitis ⸻ Colorectal Cancer Red flags: * Change in bowel habits * Blood in stool * Unexplained weight loss * Iron-deficiency anemia * Abdominal discomfort Important: Screening is important even before symptoms occur. ⸻ Constipation Risk factors: * Opioids * Immobility * Low fluid intake * Low fibre * Some medications Management: * Fluids if not contraindicated * Fibre * Activity * Bowel routine * Appropriate laxatives/stool softeners ⸻ Diarrhea Priority concerns: Fluid + electrolytes + cause Assess: * Frequency * Stool characteristics * Blood * Fever * Abdominal pain * Hydration * Recent antibiotics/travel/exposure ⸻ Peptic Ulcer Disease Major complications: * Bleeding * Perforation * Gastric outlet obstruction Warning signs: * Hematemesis * Melena * Sudden severe abdominal pain * Rigid abdomen Common causes: * H. pylori * NSAIDs ⸻ Appendicitis Classic: * Pain may begin around umbilicus and migrate to RLQ * Fever * Nausea/vomiting * Rebound/guarding may occur Priority Prevent rupture. Avoid: * Laxatives * Enemas * Applying heat to abdomen ⸻ 🚰 5. RENAL SYSTEM UTI Symptoms: * Dysuria * Frequency * Urgency * Suprapubic discomfort If infection reaches kidneys: * Fever * Flank pain * Chills * Nausea/vomiting Nursing * Obtain urine specimen correctly * Culture before antibiotics when ordered/appropriate * Encourage fluids if not contraindicated * Complete antibiotics ⸻ Renal Failure Major problems: Think: * Fluid overload * Electrolyte imbalance * Acid-base imbalance * Uremia * Anemia Possible findings: * Edema * Hypertension * Fatigue * Decreased urine output * Nausea * Confusion Particularly important: Hyperkalemia can cause life-threatening dysrhythmias. ⸻ Dialysis Hemodialysis Blood is filtered through a machine. Assess: * Weight * BP * Fluid status * Access site AV fistula Remember: “Feel + Hear” * Thrill → feel it * Bruit → hear it Protect the access: * No BP on that arm * No blood draws on that arm when avoidable * Don’t compress unnecessarily ⸻ Incontinence Types: Stress → coughing/sneezing Urge → sudden strong urge Overflow → bladder doesn’t empty Functional → can’t get to toilet Mixed → combination Management depends on cause. ⸻ 🫁 6. RESPIRATORY SYSTEM COPD Includes chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Common: * Dyspnea * Chronic cough * Sputum * Wheezing * Reduced exercise tolerance Nursing: * Position upright * Pursed-lip breathing * Energy conservation * Smoking cessation * Oxygen as prescribed * Inhaler technique Don’t automatically assume oxygen should be withheld from COPD patients. Oxygen is prescribed/titrated according to the patient’s clinical status and target saturation. ⸻ Asthma Usually reversible airway obstruction/inflammation. Symptoms: * Wheezing * Cough * Dyspnea * Chest tightness Rescue medication Short-acting bronchodilator, e.g. salbutamol. Controller Often: Inhaled corticosteroid Severe attack Red flags: * Difficulty speaking * Severe respiratory distress * Exhaustion * Altered LOC * Silent chest Silent chest = very serious. ⸻ Pneumonia Signs: * Fever * Cough * Sputum * Dyspnea * Crackles * Pleuritic chest pain Nursing: * Oxygen if needed * Antibiotics if bacterial/ordered * Hydration if appropriate * Mobilization * Cough/deep breathing * Monitor respiratory status ⸻ Lung Cancer Risk factors: * Smoking * Environmental/occupational exposures Symptoms: * Persistent cough * Hemoptysis * Weight loss * Dyspnea * Chest pain ⸻ Tuberculosis Classic: * Persistent cough * Fever * Night sweats * Weight loss * Possible hemoptysis Nursing priority Airborne precautions for suspected/confirmed infectious pulmonary TB according to institutional policy. ⸻ Atelectasis Collapsed alveoli, often after surgery. Prevention: * Deep breathing * Coughing * Incentive spirometry * Early mobilization * Adequate pain control ⸻ Pneumothorax Air in pleural space → lung collapse. Possible: * Sudden dyspnea * Chest pain * Decreased/absent breath sounds Tension pneumothorax Emergency. May cause: * Severe respiratory distress * Hypotension * Distended neck veins * Tracheal deviation * Cardiovascular collapse Requires immediate emergency treatment. ⸻ Hemothorax Blood in pleural space. Think: Respiratory compromise + blood loss. Chest tube may be required. ⸻ 🦴 7. MUSCULOSKELETAL Osteoporosis Loss of bone density. Risk: * Fractures * Vertebral compression * Hip fracture Prevention: * Weight-bearing activity * Calcium/vitamin D as appropriate * Fall prevention * Avoid smoking * Limit excessive alcohol ⸻ Fractures Priority: ABCs → bleeding → neurovascular status Assess the 6 Ps: * Pain * Pallor * Pulselessness * Paresthesia * Paralysis * Poikilothermia/coolness Neurovascular assessment is critical. ⸻ Arthritis Osteoarthritis Think: Wear and tear * Pain with activity * Stiffness * Often affects weight-bearing joints Rheumatoid arthritis Think: Autoimmune * Symmetrical joint involvement * Morning stiffness * Systemic effects ⸻ Scoliosis Abnormal lateral curvature of spine. Assess: * Posture * Shoulder/hip asymmetry * Spinal curvature * Respiratory effects if severe ⸻ Multiple Sclerosis Autoimmune demyelinating disease affecting CNS. Possible: * Weakness * Fatigue * Visual disturbances * Sensory changes * Balance problems * Bladder dysfunction Important nursing concept: Fatigue and heat can worsen symptoms. ⸻ 🦠 8. INFECTION/IMMUNE SYSTEM MRSA Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. Key: * Resistant to several antibiotics * Contact precautions may be required * Strict hand hygiene ⸻ VRE Vancomycin-resistant enterococci. Key: * Resistant organism * Contact precautions according to facility policy * Hand hygiene * Environmental cleaning ⸻ C. difficile Often associated with antibiotic exposure. Symptoms: * Frequent watery diarrhea * Abdominal cramping * Fever VERY IMPORTANT Soap and water handwashing is preferred because alcohol-based hand sanitizer does not reliably kill C. difficile spores. Use appropriate contact/spore precautions according to facility policy. ⸻ Influenza * Fever * Cough * Myalgias * Fatigue * Headache Prevention: Annual vaccination + respiratory hygiene. ⸻ Sepsis Think: Infection + organ dysfunction Potential signs: * Fever or hypothermia * Tachycardia * Tachypnea * Altered mental status * Hypotension * Reduced urine output * Elevated lactate Nursing priority Recognize early and escalate rapidly. Expect: * Cultures * Lactate * IV fluids when indicated * Prompt antimicrobials when sepsis is suspected * Source control * Frequent reassessment ⸻ 🔬 9. DIAGNOSTIC TESTS Don’t memorize only the test. For every test ask: 1. Why is it being done? 2. What does it tell me? 3. What does the nurse do before? 4. What does the nurse do after? 5. What complications should I watch for? ⸻ CT Uses X-rays to create detailed cross-sectional images. Contrast may be used. Nursing: * Check allergies/previous contrast reactions * Assess kidney function when appropriate * Follow contrast-specific instructions ⸻ MRI Uses magnetic field. NO metal/unsafe metallic objects. Assess: * Implanted devices * Metal fragments * Claustrophobia ⸻ X-ray Useful for: * Fractures * Chest conditions * Some abdominal problems ⸻ Ultrasound Uses sound waves. Common: * Pregnancy * Abdomen * Pelvis * Blood vessels No ionizing radiation. ⸻ Mammogram Breast imaging for screening/assessment. ⸻ Endoscopy Allows direct visualization of GI tract. Nursing: * Usually NPO beforehand * Sedation may be used * Monitor airway and vital signs afterward * Ensure gag/swallow reflex has returned before oral intake when applicable ⸻ Bronchoscopy Visualizes airways. Post-procedure: * Monitor respiratory status * Watch for bleeding * Keep NPO until protective reflexes return if sedated/topical anesthetic used ⸻ Pulmonary Function Tests Measure lung function. Important for: * Asthma * COPD * Other pulmonary disorders ⸻ 🧪 10. LABORATORY VALUES For exams, know what the lab means, not just the number. CBC Hemoglobin/Hematocrit Think: oxygen-carrying capacity Low → anemia/bleeding/etc. WBC Think: infection/inflammation/immune response Platelets Think: clotting Low → bleeding risk. ⸻ INR Measures effect of warfarin therapy. Higher INR generally = increased anticoagulation and bleeding risk. Monitor for: * Bleeding * Bruising * Hematuria * Melena ⸻ Glucose Think: current blood glucose ⸻ HbA1c Think: “3-month-ish glucose picture.” Used for longer-term diabetes management. ⸻ BUN + Creatinine Think: Kidney function. Creatinine is particularly useful when evaluating renal function. ⸻ GFR Estimates kidney filtration. Lower GFR generally = worse kidney function. ⸻ Electrolytes Sodium Think: water balance + neurological function Potassium Think: heart rhythm Abnormal potassium can cause dangerous dysrhythmias. Calcium Think: bones + muscles + nerves ⸻ Cholesterol LDL “Lousy” cholesterol Higher LDL → increased cardiovascular risk. HDL “Healthy” cholesterol Generally protective. ⸻ Urinalysis Can help identify: * UTI * Protein * Blood * Glucose * Ketones * Kidney problems ⸻ Culture & Sensitivity Culture = What organism? Sensitivity = Which antibiotic is effective? ⸻ 💊 11. PHARMACOLOGY For every medication, memorize: Class → Why given → Major adverse effects → Contraindications/precautions → Nursing assessments → Patient teaching ⸻ Acetaminophen (Tylenol) Used for: * Pain * Fever Major concern: Liver toxicity with excessive dosing. ⸻ NSAIDs Examples: * Ibuprofen * Naproxen Watch for: * GI bleeding * Kidney injury * Fluid retention * Cardiovascular risks ⸻ Morphine Opioid. Watch: * Respiratory depression * Sedation * Hypotension * Constipation * Nausea Antidote for opioid-induced respiratory depression: Naloxone ⸻ Antibiotics Key nursing principle: Complete the prescribed course unless directed otherwise. Watch: * Allergic reactions * Diarrhea * Superinfection * C. difficile ⸻ Warfarin (Coumadin) Anticoagulant. Monitor: INR Major complication: Bleeding Teaching: * Consistent vitamin K intake rather than suddenly changing intake * Drug interactions matter * Report unusual bleeding ⸻ Heparin Anticoagulant. Monitor: * Bleeding * Platelets * aPTT for unfractionated heparin, depending on protocol Major complication: Bleeding Important adverse reaction: HIT – heparin-induced thrombocytopenia ⸻ Insulin Major adverse effect: HYPOGLYCEMIA Know: * Onset * Peak * Duration * Administration technique * Glucose monitoring ⸻ Nitroglycerin Used for angina. Can cause: * Headache * Hypotension * Dizziness Avoid with PDE-5 inhibitors. ⸻ Digoxin Remember: “Slow heart + low potassium = danger.” Monitor: * Apical pulse * Potassium * Signs of toxicity ⸻ Diuretics Example: Furosemide (Lasix) Causes: * Increased urine output * Decreased fluid volume Watch: * BP * Electrolytes * Dehydration * Potassium ⸻ Corticosteroids Example: Prednisone Long-term effects: * Infection risk * Hyperglycemia * Osteoporosis * Fluid retention * Skin changes * Adrenal suppression Do not abruptly stop long-term corticosteroids without medical direction. ⸻ Bronchodilators Example: Salbutamol Can cause: * Tremor * Tachycardia * Nervousness ⸻ Inhaled corticosteroids Important: Rinse mouth after use. Helps prevent oral candidiasis. ⸻ Statins Example: Atorvastatin Used to lower cholesterol. Watch: * Muscle pain/weakness * Liver-related adverse effects ⸻ Stool medications Psyllium Bulk-forming. Requires adequate fluid intake unless contraindicated. Docusate Stool softener. Stimulant laxatives Increase intestinal motility. ⸻ 🧠 12. NEUROLOGICAL Seizure During seizure: Protect, don’t restrain. * Protect from injury * Turn to side if possible * Protect airway * Remove nearby hazards * Don’t put anything in mouth * Time the seizure After: * Assess airway * Vital signs * Neurological status * Document characteristics Status epilepticus Emergency. ⸻ Increased Intracranial Pressure Think: Headache + vomiting + decreased LOC + pupil changes Late sign: Cushing’s triad * Increased BP/widened pulse pressure * Bradycardia * Irregular respirations Nursing: * Elevate head as ordered * Maintain neutral neck alignment * Avoid unnecessary stimulation * Monitor neurological status * Prevent hypoxia/hypercapnia ⸻ Parkinson’s Disease Classic: TRAP T – Tremor R – Rigidity A – Akinesia/bradykinesia P – Postural instability Nursing: * Fall prevention * Mobility support * Medication timing * Swallowing assessment * Nutrition ⸻ Spinal Cord Injury Priority: Airway + breathing + immobilization + neurological assessment Possible complications: * Neurogenic shock * Autonomic dysreflexia * Respiratory compromise * Loss of bowel/bladder control * Pressure injuries Autonomic dysreflexia Usually associated with injuries at/above T6. Signs: * Sudden severe hypertension * Headache * Flushing/sweating above injury * Bradycardia Priority: Sit patient upright and identify/remove the trigger. ⸻ 👁️ 13. SENSORY Cataracts Clouding of lens. Symptoms: * Blurred vision * Glare * Reduced visual acuity Treatment: Surgical removal when significantly affecting vision. ⸻ Glaucoma Optic nerve damage often associated with increased intraocular pressure. Key distinction: Glaucoma → pressure/optic nerve Cataract → cloudy lens Acute angle-closure glaucoma: * Severe eye pain * Headache * Halos * Nausea/vomiting * Red eye Emergency. ⸻ Hearing Loss Conductive Problem with sound transmission through outer/middle ear. Sensorineural Problem involving inner ear/auditory nerve. Communication: * Face patient * Speak clearly * Don’t shout * Reduce background noise * Verify understanding ⸻ 🔥 14. BURNS Think: Airway → Breathing → Circulation Inhalation injury Red flags: * Facial burns * Soot * Singed nasal hairs * Hoarseness * Stridor * Carbonaceous sputum Airway edema can worsen rapidly. ⸻ Burn priorities * Airway * Breathing * Circulation * Fluid resuscitation for significant burns * Pain management * Infection prevention * Temperature control * Nutrition * Wound care ⸻ 15. WOMEN’S & MEN’S HEALTH Menopause Decrease in estrogen. Common: * Hot flashes * Night sweats * Sleep problems * Vaginal dryness * Mood changes Long-term: * Bone loss * Cardiovascular considerations ⸻ Birth Control Know: * Effectiveness * How it is used * Contraindications * STI protection Most hormonal birth control does NOT protect against STIs. Condoms help reduce STI transmission. ⸻ STIs Examples: * Chlamydia * Gonorrhea * Syphilis * HPV * Herpes * HIV Nursing: * Testing * Treatment adherence * Partner notification/treatment when appropriate * Safer sex education * Prevention ⸻ Breast Cancer Warning signs: * New breast lump * Skin changes * Nipple changes/discharge * Axillary lymph node changes Know current screening recommendations and individual risk factors. ⸻ Prostate Cancer Possible: * Urinary hesitancy * Weak stream * Frequency * Hematuria Important: Early prostate cancer may have no symptoms. ⸻ 🚨 16. EMERGENCY NURSING Shock Basic concept: Tissues aren’t receiving enough oxygen/perfusion. Signs: * Tachycardia * Hypotension * Altered LOC * Cool/clammy skin in many shock states * Decreased urine output * Tachypnea Major types Hypovolemic → blood/fluid loss Cardiogenic → pump failure Distributive → vasodilation (e.g., septic/anaphylactic) Obstructive → obstruction to circulation Priority: ABCs + identify/treat cause + restore perfusion. ⸻ Hemorrhage Look for: * Tachycardia * Hypotension * Pallor * Weakness * Decreased LOC * Decreased urine output Priority: Control bleeding + support circulation + escalate. ⸻ Anaphylaxis Severe allergic reaction. Signs: * Airway swelling * Wheezing * Dyspnea * Hypotension * Hives * GI symptoms FIRST-LINE MEDICATION: IM epinephrine Do not delay epinephrine while waiting for other treatments. ⸻ 💧 17. FLUID & ELECTROLYTES Dehydration Signs: * Thirst * Dry mucous membranes * Tachycardia * Hypotension * Poor skin turgor * Decreased urine output * Weight loss ⸻ Fluid overload Signs: * Edema * Crackles * Dyspnea * Weight gain * JVD * Hypertension ⸻ Potassium Hypokalemia Think: Weak + irregular heart Causes: * Diuretics * GI losses Hyperkalemia Think: Dangerous heart rhythm Causes: * Renal failure * Tissue breakdown * Certain medications ⸻ Acid-Base Use: ROME Respiratory = Opposite Metabolic = Equal Examples: Respiratory acidosis CO₂ ↑ → pH ↓ Respiratory alkalosis CO₂ ↓ → pH ↑ Metabolic acidosis HCO₃ ↓ → pH ↓ Metabolic alkalosis HCO₃ ↑ → pH ↑ ⸻ 👶 MATERNAL-CHILD NURSING Prenatal Care Monitor: * Maternal vital signs * Weight * Blood pressure * Urine * Fetal growth * Fetal heart rate * Laboratory screening * Risk factors Important warning signs: * Vaginal bleeding * Severe headache * Visual changes * Severe abdominal pain * Fluid leakage * Decreased fetal movement * Sudden swelling/other signs of hypertensive disorders ⸻ Fetal Development High-yield concept: First trimester → organ formation Second trimester → growth and development Third trimester → maturation and preparation for birth ⸻ Labour Stage 1 Onset of true labour → complete cervical dilation. Stage 2 Complete dilation → birth of baby. Stage 3 Birth of baby → delivery of placenta. Stage 4 Immediate postpartum recovery. ⸻ Apgar At approximately 1 and 5 minutes. A P G A R A – Appearance P – Pulse G – Grimace A – Activity R – Respiration Each scored 0–2. Apgar helps assess newborn adaptation; it does not by itself diagnose asphyxia or determine long-term prognosis. ⸻ Newborn Assessment Assess: * Respiratory effort * Heart rate * Temperature * Colour * Tone * Feeding * Reflexes * Weight * Head circumference * Urine/stool ⸻ Breastfeeding Benefits: * Nutrition * Immune protection * Bonding Signs of effective feeding: * Good latch * Audible swallowing * Appropriate wet/dirty diapers * Expected weight pattern ⸻ 👶 PEDIATRIC NURSING Development General progression: Head → toe Simple → complex Large muscles → fine motor Always consider developmental stage when communicating with children. ⸻ Pediatric Safety Big priorities: * Falls * Choking * Burns * Poisoning * Drowning * Car-seat safety * Medication dosing * Safe sleep Medication principle Pediatric medications are often based on: weight (kg) Always verify calculations and concentrations. ⸻ Pediatric Asthma Same basic principles as adults: * Bronchodilator for acute symptoms * Controller medications for long-term control * Trigger avoidance * Asthma action plan ⸻ RSV Common in infants/young children. Signs: * Rhinorrhea * Cough * Wheezing * Increased work of breathing * Poor feeding Priority: Respiratory assessment and hydration. ⸻ Croup Classic: Barking cough + stridor Often worse at night. Severe respiratory distress requires urgent intervention. ⸻ Cystic Fibrosis Thick secretions affect lungs and GI system. Think: “Thick mucus + lung infections + malabsorption.” Nursing: * Airway clearance * Nutrition * Pancreatic enzymes when prescribed * High-calorie/high-protein nutrition * Infection prevention ⸻ Gastroenteritis Major concern: Dehydration. Assess: * Wet diapers/urine * Mucous membranes * Tears * Capillary refill * Weight * Activity/LOC ⸻ Pyloric Stenosis Classic: Projectile, non-bilious vomiting Often occurs in young infants. Possible: * Hunger after vomiting * Dehydration * Weight loss ⸻ ASD vs VSD ASD Hole between atria. VSD Hole between ventricles. VSD can produce: A significant murmur and increased pulmonary blood flow. ⸻ Sickle Cell Disease Problem: Abnormal hemoglobin → sickled RBCs → vaso-occlusion and hemolysis. Crisis triggers: * Dehydration * Infection * Hypoxia * Stress Management: * Hydration * Oxygen if hypoxemic * Pain management * Treat infection * Rest * Disease-specific therapies ⸻ Meningitis Think: Fever + headache + stiff neck + altered mental status May also have: * Photophobia * Vomiting * Seizures Emergency. Use appropriate isolation precautions according to suspected organism and institutional policy. ⸻ Hydrocephalus Excess CSF. Infants may have: * Increasing head circumference * Bulging fontanelle * Irritability * Poor feeding * “Sunsetting” eyes Older children: * Headache * Vomiting * Visual changes * Altered LOC ⸻ 🧠 MENTAL HEALTH NURSING Therapeutic Communication DO: * Use open-ended questions * Listen * Reflect * Clarify * Validate feelings * Maintain appropriate boundaries DON’T: * Give false reassurance * Judge * Argue * Give excessive advice * Say “everything will be fine” ⸻ Depression Symptoms: * Persistent sadness * Anhedonia * Sleep changes * Appetite changes * Fatigue * Poor concentration * Feelings of worthlessness * Suicidal thoughts Nursing priority: Assess suicide risk directly. ⸻ Bipolar Disorder Mania * Elevated/irritable mood * Increased energy * Decreased need for sleep * Rapid speech * Impulsivity * Grandiosity Nursing: * Reduce stimulation * Maintain safety * Set clear limits * Encourage nutrition/hydration * Administer medications as prescribed ⸻ Schizophrenia Positive symptoms: * Hallucinations * Delusions * Disorganized speech/behaviour Negative symptoms: * Flat affect * Social withdrawal * Reduced motivation Communication Don’t argue with delusions. Instead: Acknowledge the patient’s feelings while presenting reality. ⸻ OCD Obsessions: Intrusive thoughts Compulsions: Repetitive behaviours/mental acts ⸻ Eating Disorders Watch: * Electrolytes * Cardiac rhythm * Nutrition * Weight * Refeeding complications * Psychological safety ⸻ Substance Use Priorities: * Airway/breathing/circulation * Overdose recognition * Withdrawal * Safety * Nonjudgmental communication ⸻ 🧪 HIGH-YIELD DIAGNOSTIC TEST THINKING When you see a test question, ask: “Why are they ordering this?” Examples: CT head after sudden neurological deficit → looking for bleeding/structural abnormalities. MRI → detailed soft tissue/neurological/musculoskeletal imaging. ECG → electrical activity/ischemia/dysrhythmia. Troponin → myocardial injury. HbA1c → long-term glucose control. Creatinine/GFR → kidney function. INR → warfarin effect. Culture and sensitivity → organism + effective antimicrobial. Pulmonary function test → lung function/obstruction/restriction. ⸻ 💊 PHARMACOLOGY MASTER MEMORY MAP Instead of memorizing 100 medications individually, memorize the danger associated with each class: Drug/Class Think Insulin Hypoglycemia Opioids Respiratory depression Warfarin Bleeding + INR Heparin Bleeding + HIT Furosemide Fluid/electrolyte loss Digoxin Bradycardia/toxicity ACE inhibitors Hyperkalemia + cough/angioedema Beta blockers Bradycardia/hypotension Steroids Hyperglycemia + infection NSAIDs GI bleeding + kidney injury Statins Muscle/liver effects Bronchodilators Tachycardia/tremor Inhaled steroids Oral candidiasis Antibiotics Allergy + C. diff ⸻ 🚨 THE “PRIORITY QUESTION” METHOD When you’re stuck on an exam question, ask: 1. Is the airway threatened? If yes → AIRWAY 2. Is breathing compromised? If yes → BREATHING 3. Is circulation/perfusion compromised? If yes → CIRCULATION 4. Is there an acute neurological deterioration? Think neurological emergency. 5. Is there a safety risk? Falls, suicide, aspiration, seizures, etc. 6. Which patient is deteriorating? Unstable beats stable. ⸻ ⭐ TOP THINGS I WOULD MEMORIZE FIRST If you have limited study time, prioritize these: 🚨 Emergencies * Anaphylaxis → IM epinephrine * Stroke → BE FAST + last known well * MI → ECG + rapid intervention * Sepsis → early recognition + rapid treatment * Tension pneumothorax → emergency * Severe hypoglycemia → rapid glucose treatment * Status epilepticus → emergency * Increased ICP → neurological deterioration * Hemorrhage → control bleeding + perfusion * Severe burns → ABCs 💊 Medications * Insulin → hypoglycemia * Morphine → respiratory depression * Warfarin → INR/bleeding * Heparin → bleeding/HIT * Digoxin → pulse/potassium/toxicity * Furosemide → fluid/electrolytes * Nitroglycerin → hypotension + PDE-5 interaction * Steroids → infection/hyperglycemia * Antibiotics → allergy/C. diff * Inhaled steroids → rinse mouth 🧪 Labs * Hb → oxygen carrying * WBC → infection/immune response * Platelets → bleeding/clotting * INR → warfarin * Glucose → current sugar * HbA1c → long-term glucose * Creatinine/GFR → kidney * K⁺ → heart rhythm * Na⁺ → neurological/fluid balance * Culture → organism * Sensitivity → antibiotic choice 🩺 Nursing skills * Infection control * Medication administration * IVs * Oxygen * Suction * Tracheostomy * Chest tubes * Urinary catheter * Wound care * Ostomy care * Vital signs * Neurovascular assessment * Respiratory assessment ⸻ 📚 How I’d recommend studying this huge syllabus Don’t try to study all of these diseases in one sitting. Use system blocks: Day 1: Diabetes + cardiovascular Day 2: Respiratory + renal Day 3: GI + liver Day 4: Hematology + immune/infection Day 5: Neuro + musculoskeletal Day 6: Maternal/newborn Day 7: Pediatrics Day 8: Mental health Day 9: Pharmacology Day 10: Labs + diagnostics + clinical skills Day 11: Emergency/priority questions Day 12: Full mixed practice exam + review weak areas For each condition, make yourself answer only 5 questions: 1. What is happening? 2. What will I assess? 3. What is the biggest complication? 4. What will I do first? 5. What do I teach the patient? That approach will help you think like a nurse rather than memorize isolated facts, which matches the study framework you were given.

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U.S. History Final Exam Study Guide 1. Columbus Christopher Columbus was an Italian explorer who sailed for Spain in 1492. He was searching for a westward route to Asia but instead reached the Caribbean. His voyage began long-term European exploration and colonization of the Americas. Columbus’s arrival also led to major consequences for Native Americans, including disease, conquest, forced labor, and cultural destruction. 2. Columbian Exchange The Columbian Exchange was the transfer of plants, animals, people, diseases, and ideas between Europe, Africa, and the Americas after 1492. Europeans brought horses, cattle, wheat, and diseases like smallpox. The Americas sent corn, potatoes, tomatoes, tobacco, and cacao to Europe. It changed diets, economies, populations, and environments around the world. 3. Jackson and the Bank Andrew Jackson opposed the Second Bank of the United States because he believed it gave too much power to wealthy elites. He thought the bank was unfair to common people and harmful to democracy. Jackson vetoed the bill to renew the bank’s charter and removed federal money from it. This became known as the “Bank War.” 4. Jamestown Jamestown was founded in 1607 in Virginia and was the first permanent English settlement in North America. The settlers struggled with disease, starvation, poor leadership, and conflict with Native Americans. The colony survived partly because of tobacco farming. Jamestown became important because it showed England could establish colonies in America. 5. John Smith / John Rolfe John Smith helped Jamestown survive by enforcing discipline with the rule, “He who does not work shall not eat.” He also built relationships with local Native Americans. John Rolfe introduced a successful type of tobacco, which became Jamestown’s main cash crop. Rolfe also married Pocahontas, helping create a short period of peace. 6. Middle Passage The Middle Passage was the forced journey of enslaved Africans across the Atlantic Ocean to the Americas. Conditions on ships were brutal, overcrowded, and deadly. Many Africans died from disease, starvation, abuse, or suicide. It was part of the triangular trade system and a major part of the growth of slavery in the Americas. 7. Bacon’s Rebellion Bacon’s Rebellion happened in Virginia in 1676. Nathaniel Bacon led poor farmers, indentured servants, and others against Governor Berkeley. They were angry about lack of protection from Native American attacks and unfair treatment by wealthy landowners. After the rebellion, plantation owners relied more on enslaved Africans instead of indentured servants. 8. Mayflower Compact The Mayflower Compact was signed in 1620 by the Pilgrims before they settled at Plymouth. It created a basic form of self-government. The signers agreed to make and follow laws for the good of the colony. It is important because it was an early example of democracy and majority rule in America. 9. Pilgrims & Puritans Pilgrims were Separatists who wanted to completely break away from the Church of England. They settled Plymouth in 1620. Puritans wanted to reform or “purify” the Church of England and settled mostly in Massachusetts Bay. Both groups came for religious reasons, but the Puritans created a larger and stricter society. 10. Age of Jackson Presidents The Age of Jackson refers mainly to Andrew Jackson’s presidency and the expansion of democracy for white men. Voting rights expanded as property requirements were removed for many white males. Jackson presented himself as a champion of the common man. However, this era also included Indian removal, the Bank War, and growing sectional conflict. 11. Stamp Act The Stamp Act of 1765 was a British tax on paper goods such as newspapers, legal documents, and playing cards. Colonists were angry because they had no representatives in Parliament. This led to the slogan “No taxation without representation.” Colonial protests helped force Britain to repeal the law. 12. American System The American System was an economic plan supported by Henry Clay. It included protective tariffs, a national bank, and internal improvements such as roads and canals. Its goal was to strengthen the U.S. economy and connect different regions. It showed the federal government taking a stronger role in economic growth. 13. Boston Massacre The Boston Massacre happened in 1770 when British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing five people. Colonists used the event as propaganda against Britain. Paul Revere’s engraving made the British look cruel and violent. It increased anger and tension between Britain and the colonies. 14. Boston Tea Party The Boston Tea Party happened in 1773. Colonists protested the Tea Act by dumping British tea into Boston Harbor. They were angry because Britain gave the British East India Company special advantages. Britain responded with the Intolerable Acts, which punished Massachusetts. 15. Declaration of Independence The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4, 1776. It announced that the colonies were separating from Britain. Thomas Jefferson wrote most of it. The document argued that people have natural rights and that government gets power from the consent of the governed. 16. Unalienable Rights Unalienable rights are rights that cannot be taken away. In the Declaration of Independence, these include “life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.” The idea came from Enlightenment thinkers like John Locke. These rights were used to justify independence from Britain. 17. Common Sense / Thomas Paine Common Sense was a pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776. It argued that the colonies should become independent from Britain. Paine used simple language so ordinary people could understand. It helped convince many colonists to support independence. 18. Articles of Confederation The Articles of Confederation were America’s first national government. They created a weak central government because Americans feared tyranny. Congress could not tax, regulate trade well, or enforce laws effectively. Its weaknesses led to the creation of the Constitution. 19. Shays’ Rebellion Shays’ Rebellion was a farmers’ rebellion in Massachusetts in 1786–1787. Farmers were angry about debt, taxes, and losing their farms. The weak national government could not respond effectively. This showed the problems of the Articles of Confederation and encouraged leaders to write the Constitution. 20. Lexington and Concord / “Shot Heard ’Round the World” The Battles of Lexington and Concord happened in April 1775. They were the first battles of the American Revolution. British troops went to seize colonial weapons, but colonial militias resisted. The “shot heard ’round the world” refers to the first shot that began the Revolution. 21. Bunker Hill The Battle of Bunker Hill happened in 1775 near Boston. The British won, but they suffered heavy casualties. The battle proved that colonial forces could fight against the powerful British army. It gave colonists confidence early in the Revolution. 22. Saratoga / Ben Franklin The Battle of Saratoga in 1777 was a major American victory. It is considered the turning point of the Revolutionary War. After Saratoga, France agreed to support the Americans. Benjamin Franklin helped negotiate the French alliance, which provided money, troops, and naval support. 23. Yorktown The Battle of Yorktown happened in 1781. American and French forces trapped British General Cornwallis in Virginia. The French navy blocked British escape by sea. Cornwallis surrendered, effectively ending the Revolutionary War. 24. Alexander Hamilton / Economic Plan Alexander Hamilton was the first Secretary of the Treasury. His economic plan included paying off national debt, creating a national bank, and supporting manufacturing. He wanted a strong federal government and strong economy. His plan helped stabilize the new nation but caused political conflict. 25. Whiskey Rebellion The Whiskey Rebellion happened in 1794 when farmers protested a tax on whiskey. President George Washington sent federal troops to stop the rebellion. This showed that the new Constitution gave the federal government power to enforce laws. It was a contrast to the weakness shown during Shays’ Rebellion. 26. Washington’s Farewell Address Washington’s Farewell Address warned Americans against political parties and permanent foreign alliances. He believed political parties could divide the nation. He also wanted the U.S. to avoid being pulled into European conflicts. His advice influenced American foreign policy for many years. 27. James K. Polk James K. Polk was president from 1845 to 1849. He strongly supported Manifest Destiny and westward expansion. During his presidency, the U.S. gained Oregon territory and fought the Mexican-American War. The U.S. gained a large amount of land, including California and the Southwest. 28. William Henry Harrison William Henry Harrison was the 9th president of the United States. He was known as a military hero from the Battle of Tippecanoe. He gave a very long inaugural speech in cold weather and died about a month later. He had the shortest presidency in U.S. history. 29. Constitution The Constitution is the supreme law of the United States. It replaced the Articles of Confederation and created a stronger federal government. It established three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. It also created checks and balances to prevent one branch from becoming too powerful. 30. Preamble to the Constitution The Preamble is the introduction to the Constitution. It begins with “We the People.” It explains the goals of the government, such as forming a more perfect union, establishing justice, ensuring peace, providing defense, promoting general welfare, and securing liberty. 31. The Republican Party The Republican Party was founded in the 1850s. It opposed the spread of slavery into western territories. Abraham Lincoln was the first Republican president. The party’s rise showed how slavery was becoming the central political issue before the Civil War. 32. Three-Fifths Compromise The Three-Fifths Compromise was made at the Constitutional Convention. It said that enslaved people would count as three-fifths of a person for representation and taxation. Southern states wanted enslaved people counted for more representation. This compromise increased Southern political power while protecting slavery. 33. Checks and Balances Checks and balances allow each branch of government to limit the power of the others. For example, the president can veto laws, Congress can override vetoes, and the Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional. This system prevents any one branch from becoming too powerful. 34. Intolerable Acts The Intolerable Acts were passed by Britain after the Boston Tea Party. They punished Massachusetts by closing Boston Harbor and limiting self-government. Colonists saw these acts as unfair and oppressive. They helped unite the colonies against Britain. 35. Bill of Rights The Bill of Rights is the first ten amendments to the Constitution. It protects individual freedoms such as speech, religion, press, assembly, and the right to bear arms. It was added to satisfy Anti-Federalists who feared a strong central government. 36. Impressment Impressment was the British practice of forcing American sailors into the British navy. It angered Americans and violated U.S. neutrality. Impressment was one of the major causes of the War of 1812. 37. Judicial Review / Marbury v. Madison Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to declare laws unconstitutional. It was established in Marbury v. Madison in 1803. Chief Justice John Marshall strengthened the power of the Supreme Court through this decision. 38. James Madison James Madison is known as the “Father of the Constitution” because he helped design the U.S. government. He also helped write the Federalist Papers and the Bill of Rights. As president, he led the country during the War of 1812. 39. War of 1812 / Battle of New Orleans The War of 1812 was fought between the United States and Britain. Causes included impressment, trade restrictions, and British support for Native American resistance. The Battle of New Orleans was fought after the peace treaty had been signed, but news had not arrived. Andrew Jackson became a national hero because of the victory. 40. Monroe Doctrine The Monroe Doctrine was announced in 1823 by President James Monroe. It warned European nations not to colonize or interfere in the Americas. In return, the U.S. would stay out of European affairs. It showed growing American confidence in foreign policy. 41. John Quincy Adams / Corrupt Bargain John Quincy Adams became president after the election of 1824. No candidate won a majority, so the House of Representatives decided the election. Henry Clay supported Adams and later became Secretary of State. Andrew Jackson’s supporters called this a “corrupt bargain.” 42. Manifest Destiny Manifest Destiny was the belief that the United States was destined to expand across North America. It encouraged westward expansion. Supporters saw expansion as progress, but it led to Native American removal, war with Mexico, and conflict over slavery. 43. Trail of Tears / Indian Removal Act The Indian Removal Act of 1830 allowed the federal government to move Native Americans west of the Mississippi River. The Trail of Tears refers especially to the forced removal of the Cherokee. Thousands died from hunger, disease, and exposure. It is one of the darkest examples of U.S. expansion. 44. Worcester v. Georgia Worcester v. Georgia was an 1832 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that Georgia had no authority over Cherokee land. However, President Andrew Jackson did not enforce the ruling. The Cherokee were still forced to move west. 45. Missouri Compromise The Missouri Compromise was passed in 1820. Missouri entered as a slave state, and Maine entered as a free state. It also banned slavery north of the 36°30′ line in the Louisiana Territory. It temporarily balanced free and slave states but did not solve the slavery issue. 46. Alamo The Alamo was a mission in San Antonio, Texas, where Texan defenders fought Mexican forces in 1836. The defenders were defeated, but the battle became a symbol of resistance. “Remember the Alamo” became a rallying cry during the Texas Revolution. 47. Kansas-Nebraska Act The Kansas-Nebraska Act of 1854 allowed settlers in Kansas and Nebraska to decide whether to allow slavery through popular sovereignty. It repealed the Missouri Compromise line. It led to violence in Kansas, known as “Bleeding Kansas,” and increased sectional conflict. 48. Harriet Tubman Harriet Tubman escaped slavery and became a leader in the Underground Railroad. She helped many enslaved people escape to freedom. During the Civil War, she also served as a nurse, spy, and scout for the Union. She became a symbol of courage and resistance to slavery. 49. Seneca Falls Convention The Seneca Falls Convention was held in 1848 in New York. It was the first major women’s rights convention in the United States. Leaders included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott. The convention demanded women’s rights, including the right to vote. 50. John Brown John Brown was a radical abolitionist who believed slavery must be ended by force. In 1859, he led a raid on Harpers Ferry to start a slave rebellion. The raid failed, and Brown was executed. His actions increased tension between North and South before the Civil War. 51. Fugitive Slave Act The Fugitive Slave Act was part of the Compromise of 1850. It required citizens to help capture escaped enslaved people. It also punished people who helped freedom seekers. Many Northerners were angered by the law because it forced them to participate in slavery. 52. Harriet Beecher Stowe / Uncle Tom’s Cabin Harriet Beecher Stowe wrote Uncle Tom’s Cabin in 1852. The novel showed the cruelty of slavery and became very popular in the North. It helped increase abolitionist feelings. Southerners criticized it and argued that it gave a false picture of slavery. 53. Dred Scott v. Sandford Dred Scott v. Sandford was an 1857 Supreme Court case. The Court ruled that enslaved people were not citizens and could not sue in court. It also said Congress could not ban slavery in the territories. This decision angered Northerners and made sectional conflict worse. 54. Lincoln-Douglas Debates The Lincoln-Douglas debates happened in 1858 during the Illinois Senate race. Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas debated slavery’s expansion. Lincoln argued slavery should not spread, while Douglas supported popular sovereignty. Although Lincoln lost the Senate race, the debates made him nationally known. 55. Popular Sovereignty Popular sovereignty means allowing people in a territory to vote on whether to allow slavery. Stephen Douglas supported this idea. It was used in the Kansas-Nebraska Act. Instead of solving the slavery issue, it led to violence and conflict. 56. Fort Sumter Fort Sumter was a federal fort in South Carolina. Confederate forces fired on it in April 1861. This attack began the Civil War. After Fort Sumter, more Southern states joined the Confederacy. 57. Emancipation Proclamation The Emancipation Proclamation was issued by Abraham Lincoln in 1863. It declared enslaved people free in Confederate-controlled areas. It did not immediately free all enslaved people, but it changed the purpose of the war. The Civil War became a fight to preserve the Union and end slavery. 58. Gettysburg Address The Gettysburg Address was a speech given by Abraham Lincoln in 1863 after the Battle of Gettysburg. Lincoln honored the soldiers who died and explained the meaning of the war. He said the nation was fighting for democracy and equality. The speech is one of the most famous in American history. 59. Reconstruction Reconstruction was the period after the Civil War when the U.S. tried to rebuild the South and reunite the nation. It also aimed to define freedom and rights for formerly enslaved people. During Reconstruction, the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments were passed. However, racism, Black Codes, and groups like the Ku Klux Klan limited progress. 60. Civil War Amendments The Civil War Amendments are the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments. The 13th Amendment abolished slavery. The 14th Amendment gave citizenship and equal protection under the law. The 15th Amendment gave Black men the right to vote. 61. Roger Williams Roger Williams was a Puritan minister who believed in religious freedom and separation of church and state. He was banished from Massachusetts for his beliefs. He founded Rhode Island, which became known for religious tolerance. His ideas influenced later American ideas about freedom of religion.

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