Solfedge Key signatures

Chapter 13: Choice of Business Entity, Sole Proprietorships, and Partnerships

Posterior Leg and Sole of Foot

Music Theory: Key Signatures, Clefs, and Solfege

Setting up as sole trader

Chapter 4 Skin and Body Membranes Body Membranes Functions of body membranes Cover body surfaces Line body cavities Form protective sheets around organs Classified according to tissue types Body Membranes Two major categories Epithelial membranes Cutaneous membranes Mucous membranes Serous membranes Connective tissue membranes Synovial membranes Epithelial Membranes Epithelial membranes are simple organs Also called covering and lining membranes These membranes contain both: Epithelial tissue layer Connective tissue layer Epithelial Membranes Cutaneous membrane = skin Dry membrane Outermost protective boundary Consists of two layers Epidermis is composed of keratinized stratified squamous epithelium Dermis is mostly dense (fibrous) connective tissue Epithelial Membranes • Mucous membranes (mucosae) • I Moist membranes Some mucosae secrete protective, lubricating mucus Line all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface • Adapted for absorption or secretion • ' Consists of two layers • Epithelium type depends on site • Loose connective tissue (lamina propria) Epithelial Membranes Serous membranes (serosae) Line compartments in the ventral body cavity that are ciosed to the exterior of the body Occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a visceral and parietal layer Consists of two layers Simple squamous epithelium Areolar connective tissue Epithelial Membranes Specific serous membranes Peritoneum Cover organs in the abdominal cavity Pleurae Surround the lungs Pericardia Surround the heart Connective Tissue Membranes Synovial membranes Loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial tissue) Line fibrous capsules surrounding joints Line bursae Line tendon sheaths Secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving against each other during muscle activity Integumentary System Integumentary system consists of the: Skin (cutaneous membrane) Skin appendages Sweat glands Oil glands Hair Nails Functions of the Integumentary System Insulates and cushion deeper body organs Protects the entire body from: Mechanical damage (bumps and cuts) Chemical damage (acids and bases) Thermal damage (heat or cold) Ultraviolet (UV) radiation (sunlight) Microbes (bacteria) • Water loss Functions of the Integumentary System Regulates heat loss as controlled by the nervous system Acts as a mini-excretory system; sweat aids in the loss of Urea Salts Water Synthesizes vitamin D Secretions create a protective acid mantle Structure of the Skin Two kinds of tissue compose the skin Epidermis Dermis Subcutaneous tissue (hypodermis) Anchors the skin to underlying organs Not technically part of the integumentary system Composed mostly of adipose tissue Serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues Structure of the Skin Epidermisouter layer Composed of stratified squamous epithelium Most cells are keratinocytes which produce a fibrous protein called keratin Keratinization makes the epidermis tough Desmosomes connect keratinocytes together Avascular Composed of five layers (strata) Structure of the Skin Summary of strata (layers) of the epidermis from deepest to most superficial Stratum basale Stratum spinosum Stratum granulosum Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only) Stratum corneum Structure of the Skin Stratum basale (stratum germinativum) Deepest layer of epidermis Lies next to dermis Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two together Cells undergoing mitosis Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the more superficial layers Stratum spinosum Cells become increasingly flatter and more keratinized Structure of the Skin Stratum granulosum Stratum lucidum Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and soles of feet Stratum corneum Outermost layer of epidermis Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective protein prevents wat loss from skin Structure of the Skin Melanin Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes Melanocytes are mostly in the stratum basale of the epidermis Color is yellow to brown to black Structure of the Skin Epidermal dendritic cells Alert and activate immune cells to a threat (bacterial or viral invasion) Merkel cells Associated with sensory nerve endings Serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs Structure of the Skin Dermis Connective tissue Underlies the epidermis Two regions Papillary Reticular Structure of the Skin Two regions of the dermis Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contain projections called dermal papillae Areolar connective tissue Indent the epidermis above Many projections contain capillary loops, and others house pain and touch receptors On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase friction and gripping ability Fingerprints are identifying films of sweat Structure of the Skin Two regions of the dermis Reticular layer (deepest skin layer) Dense irregular connective tissue Blood vessels Sweat and oil glands Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles) Structure of the Skin Other dermal features Cutaneous sensory receptors Phagocytes Collagen and elastic fibers Blood vessels I Nerve supply Skin Color • Three pigments contribute to skin color 1. Melanin • Yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments 2. Carotene • Orange-yellow pigment (also found in some vegetables) 3. Hemoglobin Red coloring from blood cells in dermal capillaries Oxygen content determines the extent of red coloring Skin Color Redness (erythema) due to embarrassment, inflammation, hypertension, fever, or allergy Pallor (blanching) due to emotional stress (such as fear), anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow to an area Jaundice (yellow cast)-indicates a liver disorder • Bruises (black and blue marks)-hematomas Appendages of the Skin Cutaneous glands are all exocrine glands Sebaceous glands Sweat glands Hair and hair follicles Nails Appendages of the Skin Sebaceous (oil) glands Located all over the skin except for palms and soles Produce sebum (oil) Makes skin soft and moist Prevents hair from becoming brittle Kills bacteria Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open directly onto skin surface Glands are activated at puberty with increased androgens Appendages of the Skin Sweat (sudoriferous) glands Produce sweat Widely distributed in skin Two types of sudoriferous glands Eccrine glands Apocrine glands Appendages of the Skin Eccrine glands More numerous, located all over the body Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin's surface Produce acidic sweat Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of metabolic waste Function in body temperature regulation Appendages of the Skin Apocrine glands Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and genitals Begin to function at puberty Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and proteins (milky or yellowish color) • Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation Appendages of the Skin Hair Located body-wide except for palms, soles, nipples, lips Produced by hair follicle Root is enclosed in the follicle Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells Melanocytes provide pigment for hair color Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale Appendages of the Skin Hair anatomy Central medulla Cortex surrounds medulla Cuticle on outside of cortex Most heavily keratinized region of the hair Melanin provides color Appendages of the Skin Associated hair structures Hair follicle Composed of an inner epithelial root sheath andan outer fibrous sheath Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb (deepest part of the follicle) Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull hairs upright when we are cold or frightened Appendages of the Skin Nails Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the epidermis Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is responsible for growth Lack of pigment makes nails colorless Appendages of the Skin Parts of a nail Free edge Body is the visible attached portion Nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the nail; the cuticle is the proximal edge Root of nail is embedded in skin Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix of nail bed Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Infections and allergies Athlete's foot Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis) Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles Caused by inflammation of hair follicles Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria Cold sores (fever blisters) Caused by human herpesvirus 1 Blisters itch and sting Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Infections and allergies Contact dermatitis Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic responses Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin Impetigo Caused by bacterial infection Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose Psoriasis Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or stress Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that itch, burn, Crack, or sometimes bleed Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin • Burns Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV radiation, or chemicals Associated dangers Protein denaturation and cell death Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance Circulatory shock Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the invasion of bacteria Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Extent of a burn is estimated using the rule of nines Body is divided into 11 areas for quick estimation Each area represents about 9 percent of total body surface area The area surrounding the genitals (the perineum) represents 1 percent of body surface area Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin . First-degree burn (superficial burn) Only epidermis is damaged Skin is red and swollen Second-degree burn (superficial partial-thickness burn) Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged Skin is red, painful, and blistered Regrowth of the epithelium can occur Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn) Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn) Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons) Appears dry and leathery Requires surgery and grafting May require amputation Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met): Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns Over 10 percent of the body has third-or fourth-degree burns Third-or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, feet, or genitals Burns affect the airways Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have occurred Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Skin cancer Most common form of cancer in humans Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet (V) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds Cancer can be classified two ways Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other body areas Concept Link Recall that mitosis gone wild is the basis for cancer (Chapter 3, pp. 82-83). These cells lack normal control of cell division and divide quickly, resulting in errors during DNA replication, mitosis, or both. Cells experiencing rapid, uncontrolled growth become cancerous and can metastasize (spread) to other parts of the body. Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin . First-degree burn (superficial burn) Only epidermis is damaged Skin is red and swollen Second-degree burn (superficial partial-thickness burn) Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged Skin is red, painful, and blistered Regrowth of the epithelium can occur Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn) Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn) Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons) Appears dry and leathery Requires surgery and grafting May require amputation Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Criteria for deeming burns critical (if any one is met): Over 30 percent of body has second-degree burns Over 10 percent of the body has third-or fourth-degree burns Third-or fourth-degree burns of the face, hands, feet, or genitals Burns affect the airways Circumferential (around the body or limb) burns have occurred Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin Skin cancer Most common form of cancer in humans Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet (V) radiation in sunlight and tanning beds Cancer can be classified two ways Benign means the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread Malignant means the neoplasm has invaded other body areas Concept Link Recall that mitosis gone wild is the basis for cancer (Chapter 3, pp. 82-83). These cells lack normal control of cell division and divide quickly, resulting in errors during DNA • One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body Membranes Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth month of fetal development but disappears by birth Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear by the third week Acne may appear during adolescence Pimples, scales, and dermatitis are more common with aging skin Developmental Aspects of Skin and Body Membranes In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive sunlight Balding (alopecia) and/or graying occurs with aging; both are genetically determined other factors that may contribute include drugs and emotional stress

AS Product Design - 10.5n Soft soldering

AS Product Design - 10.5n Hard soldering

Solfège hand signs

Solfège note

Solfege

solfage to numbers

sein — είμαι ich bin du bist er/sie/es ist wir sind ihr seid sie/Sie sind ⸻ haben — έχω ich habe du hast er/sie/es hat wir haben ihr habt sie/Sie haben ⸻ werden — γίνομαι / θα ich werde du wirst er/sie/es wird wir werden ihr werdet sie/Sie werden ⸻ heißen — ονομάζομαι / λέγομαι ich heiße du heißt er/sie/es heißt wir heißen ihr heißt sie/Sie heißen ⸻ wohnen — μένω / κατοικώ ich wohne du wohnst er/sie/es wohnt wir wohnen ihr wohnt sie/Sie wohnen ⸻ machen — κάνω ich mache du machst er/sie/es macht wir machen ihr macht sie/Sie machen ⸻ gehen — πηγαίνω ich gehe du gehst er/sie/es geht wir gehen ihr geht sie/Sie gehen ⸻ kommen — έρχομαι ich komme du kommst er/sie/es kommt wir kommen ihr kommt sie/Sie kommen ⸻ fahren — πηγαίνω/ταξιδεύω με όχημα ich fahre du fährst er/sie/es fährt wir fahren ihr fahrt sie/Sie fahren ⸻ sprechen — μιλάω ich spreche du sprichst er/sie/es spricht wir sprechen ihr sprecht sie/Sie sprechen ⸻ essen — τρώω ich esse du isst er/sie/es isst wir essen ihr esst sie/Sie essen ⸻ trinken — πίνω ich trinke du trinkst er/sie/es trinkt wir trinken ihr trinkt sie/Sie trinken ⸻ schlafen — κοιμάμαι ich schlafe du schläfst er/sie/es schläft wir schlafen ihr schlaft sie/Sie schlafen ⸻ sehen — βλέπω ich sehe du siehst er/sie/es sieht wir sehen ihr seht sie/Sie sehen ⸻ lesen — διαβάζω ich lese du liest er/sie/es liest wir lesen ihr lest sie/Sie lesen ⸻ schreiben — γράφω ich schreibe du schreibst er/sie/es schreibt wir schreiben ihr schreibt sie/Sie schreiben ⸻ wissen — ξέρω (πληροφορία) ich weiß du weißt er/sie/es weiß wir wissen ihr wisst sie/Sie wissen ⸻ kennen — γνωρίζω (άτομο/μέρος) ich kenne du kennst er/sie/es kennt wir kennen ihr kennt sie/Sie kennen ⸻ können — μπορώ / έχω την ικανότητα ich kann du kannst er/sie/es kann wir können ihr könnt sie/Sie können ⸻ müssen — πρέπει ich muss du musst er/sie/es muss wir müssen ihr müsst sie/Sie müssen ⸻ wollen — θέλω ich will du willst er/sie/es will wir wollen ihr wollt sie/Sie wollen ⸻ sollen — πρέπει / υποτίθεται ότι ich soll du sollst er/sie/es soll wir sollen ihr sollt sie/Sie sollen ⸻ dürfen — επιτρέπεται ich darf du darfst er/sie/es darf wir dürfen ihr dürft sie/Sie dürfen ⸻ mögen — μου αρέσει ich mag du magst er/sie/es mag wir mögen ihr mögt sie/Sie mögen ⸻ möchten — θα ήθελα ich möchte du möchtest er/sie/es möchte wir möchten ihr möchtet sie/Sie möchten ⸻ geben — δίνω ich gebe du gibst er/sie/es gibt wir geben ihr gebt sie/Sie geben ⸻ nehmen — παίρνω ich nehme du nimmst er/sie/es nimmt wir nehmen ihr nehmt sie/Sie nehmen ⸻ finden — βρίσκω ich finde du findest er/sie/es findet wir finden ihr findet sie/Sie finden ⸻ bleiben — μένω / παραμένω ich bleibe du bleibst er/sie/es bleibt wir bleiben ihr bleibt sie/Sie bleiben ⸻ bringen — φέρνω ich bringe du bringst er/sie/es bringt wir bringen ihr bringt sie/Sie bringen ⸻ denken — σκέφτομαι ich denke du denkst er/sie/es denkt wir denken ihr denkt sie/Sie denken ⸻ glauben — πιστεύω ich glaube du glaubst er/sie/es glaubt wir glauben ihr glaubt sie/Sie glauben ⸻ fragen — ρωτάω ich frage du fragst er/sie/es fragt wir fragen ihr fragt sie/Sie fragen ⸻ antworten — απαντάω ich antworte du antwortest er/sie/es antwortet wir antworten ihr antwortet sie/Sie antworten ⸻ arbeiten — δουλεύω ich arbeite du arbeitest er/sie/es arbeitet wir arbeiten ihr arbeitet sie/Sie arbeiten ⸻ lernen — μαθαίνω / μελετάω ich lerne du lernst er/sie/es lernt wir lernen ihr lernt sie/Sie lernen ⸻ brauchen — χρειάζομαι ich brauche du brauchst er/sie/es braucht wir brauchen ihr braucht sie/Sie brauchen ⸻ suchen — ψάχνω / αναζητώ ich suche du suchst er/sie/es sucht wir suchen ihr sucht sie/Sie suchen ⸻ helfen — βοηθάω ich helfe du hilfst er/sie/es hilft wir helfen ihr helft sie/Sie helfen

Flashcard di Meccanica dei Materiali e Solleciti

Musical Note Solfège Equivalents

Sole trader profits

Human Anatomy and Physiology Third Edition Chapter 1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (1 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties •Cellular Composition—Cells are the smallest units that carry out the functions of life •Metabolism—Living organisms carry out chemical processes collectively called metabolism –“Building” processes are known as Anabolism –“Breaking down” processes are known as Catabolism •Growth—An increase in the size and/or number of cells Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Characteristics of Living Organisms (2 of 2) Living Organisms share distinct properties (continued) •Excretion—Elimination of potentially harmful waste products created by metabolic processes •Responsiveness or Irritability—Organisms sense and react to changes or stimuli in their environment •Movement—Organisms or individual cells of an organism move •Reproduction—Production of new cells during growth or repair or reproduction of new organisms Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (1 of 7) The body is constructed of a series of progressively larger “building blocks” known as the Structural Levels of Organization •Chemical Level—This is the smallest level; Chemicals range from tiny atoms to complex molecules •Cellular Level—Groups of many different types of molecules combine in specific ways to form cellular structures •Tissue Level—Two or more cell types and material outside them, called extracellular matrix, combine to perform a common function Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (2 of 7) Structural Levels of Organization (continued) •Organ Level—Two or more tissue types combine to form an organ with a recognizable shape that performs a specialized task •Organ System Level—Two or more organs that together carry out a broad function in the body –The human body has 11 organ systems •Organism Level—The organ systems function together to make up the working human body—an organism Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (3 of 7) Figure 1.5 Six structural levels of organization of the human body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (4 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (5 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (6 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Levels of Structural Organization and Body Systems (7 of 7) Figure 1.6 The 11 organ systems of the human body Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (1 of 2) Study of Anatomy can be approached in several ways •Systemic Anatomy—Examines individual organ systems •Regional Anatomy—Examines the body in regions, such as the head and neck •Surface Anatomy—Examines surface markings •Gross Anatomy—Examines structures that can be seen with the unaided eye •Microscopic Anatomy—Examines cells (Cytology) and tissues (Histology) with the use of a microscope Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.2 Types of Anatomy and Physiology (2 of 2) Study of Physiology includes numerous subfields •Physiology subfields are classified by organ or organ systems, such as neurophysiology and cardiophysiology •Physiologists can also study other structural levels of organization of the body such as chemical, cellular, and tissue levels Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Word Parts •The language of science is built on Word Roots—core components of words with specific meanings •Word roots are combined with Prefixes and Suffixes to yield scientific terms •For example, combine the following: –Prefix an- (means without) –Word root encephala- (means brain) –Suffix -ic (means condition of) •“Anencephalic” is the condition of lacking a part of the brain Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (1 of 4) Anatomical Position—Common frame of reference from which all body parts and regions are described regardless of position –Body is standing upright –Feet are shoulder width apart –Upper limbs at the sides of trunk –Head and palms facing forward Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (2 of 4) Directional Terms—Describe the relative locations of body parts and markings to ensure accurate communication among scientists and healthcare professionals •Anterior/Posterior—Anterior refers to the front and posterior refers to the back; Can refer to body as a whole or to a body part •Superior/Inferior—Superior, or cranial, means towards the head and inferior, or caudal, means towards the tail; Used to refer to positions on head, neck, and trunk only Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (3 of 4) Directional Terms (continued) •Proximal/Distal—Proximal means closer to the point of origin and distal means further from the point of origin; Used to refer to positions on the limbs only •Medial/Lateral—Medial refers to a position closer to the middle line of the body, called the midline, and lateral refers to a position farther away from the midline •Superficial/Deep—Superficial refers to structures closer to the surface of the body and deep refers to structures farther below Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 The Anatomical Position and Directional Terms (4 of 4) Figure 1.7 Directional terms. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Medical Errors •Most medical errors occur when a patient is dispensed the wrong type or dose of medication •Occasionally, they involve surgery and are known as “wrong site” or “wrong body” procedures when the surgeon operates on the wrong part of the body or even the wrong patient •Precise communication with appropriate use of anatomical terminology is critical to prevent medical errors Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (1 of 7) Regional Terms—The body can be divided into two broad regions: Axial (head, neck, and trunk); and Appendicular (upper and lower limbs or appendages) •Each broad region can be divided into several smaller Regions •Regions may be named as nouns, such as the upper arm or brachium, or as adjective with the addition of a suffix such as -al, which is paired with the word “region” to give us the term brachial region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (2 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (3 of 7) Figure 1.8 Regions of the body. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (4 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Trunk Pertaining To: Abdominal The abdomen Cervical The neck Gluteal The buttocks Inguinal The groin Lumbar The lower back Pelvic The pelvis Pubic The pubis Sacral The sacrum Sternal The sternum Thoracic The chest Vertebral The spinal column Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (5 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Head and Face Pertaining To: Buccal The cheek Cranial The skull Cephalic The head Frontal The forehead Mental The chin Nasal The nose Occipital The back of the head Ocular The eye Oral The mouth Otic The ear Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (6 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Upper Limb Pertaining To: Acromial The point of the shoulder Antebrachial The forearm Antecubital The anterior surface of the elbow Axillary The armpit Brachial The arm Carpal The wrist Digital The fingers (or toes) Manual The hand Metacarpal The metacarpals (bones of the hand) Palmar The palm Pollex The thumb Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Regional Terms (7 of 7) Table 1.1 Regional Terms Region of the Lower Limb Pertaining To: Coxal The hip Crural The anterior surface of the leg Femoral The thigh Hallux The great toe Metatarsal The metatarsals (bones of the foot) Patellar The anterior surface of the knee Pedal The foot Plantar The sole of the foot Popliteal The posterior surface of the knee Sural The posterior surface of the leg Tarsal The ankle Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (1 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Cervical region 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior side, Lateral to midline; Begins inferior to mental region; Ends superior to thoracic region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle; Superficial to underlying larynx 4.Put It All Together—Incision on anterior cervical region lateral to midline; Extended vertically 1 centimeter inferior to mental region to 2 centimeters superior to thoracic region; Deep to skin and muscle, but superficial to larynx Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost: Putting Anatomical Terms Together (2 of 2) 1.Name the Region—Left Crural 2.Add Descriptive Directional Terms— On anterior and medial side; Proximal to tarsal region and distal to patellar region 3.Describe Depth of Incision—Deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone 4.Put It All Together—Wound on left anteromedial crural region, 10 centimeters proximal to tarsal region and 6 centimeters distal to patellar region; Pellet is lodged deep to skin and muscle but superficial to bone Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: Concept Boost Mini Lecture: Putting Anatomical Terms Together https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/_video.true/bc_amerman_hap_3_concept-boost_ch1 Loading… Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (1 of 4) Planes of Section—Divide a body or body part for examination •Sagittal Plane—Divides body into right and left sections –Midsagittal Plane: Also called a Median Plane; Sections are equal –Parasagittal Plane: Sections are unequal Figure 1.9a Sagittal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (2 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Frontal Plane—Also called a Coronal Plane; Divides body into anterior and posterior sections Figure 1.9b Frontal plane. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (3 of 4) Planes of Section (continued) •Transverse Plane— Also called a Horizontal Plane or Cross Section; Divides body into superior and inferior sections or proximal and distal sections •Oblique Plane—Used less frequently; Taken at an angle Figure 1.9c Transverse planes. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.3 Planes of Section (4 of 4) Study Boost: How to Learn Anatomical Terms •Flashcards are popular because research shows that they work –Make customized flashcards with Practice Anatomy Lab™ Flashcards in the Study Area of Mastering® A&P –Make handwritten flashcards •Don’t forget to “Bring It Back” by quizzing yourself and “Mix It Up” by randomizing the order Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Posterior Body Cavity Cavity—Any space within the body; Protects internal organs and allows them to move Posterior Body Cavity— Located on posterior side of body •Cranial Cavity—Within the skull; Includes the brain •Spinal Cavity—Within the vertebral column; Includes the spinal cord •Both cavities are filled with Cerebrospinal Fluid, which bathes both organs Figure 1.10a Posterior body cavity, lateral view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (1 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity—Has two main divisions separated by the muscular diaphragm •Thoracic Cavity is superior to the diaphragm •Abdominopelvic Cavity is inferior to the diaphragm •Smaller cavities exist within the thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities formed by sheets of tissue termed Serous Membranes Figure 1.10b Anterior body cavity, anterior view. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (2 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Thoracic Cavity –Pleural Cavities—Surround left and right lungs –Mediastinum—Between pleural cavities; Houses heart, great vessels, trachea (windpipe), and esophagus; Not within serous membrane –Pericardial Cavity—Within mediastinum; Within serous membrane that surrounds heart Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (3 of 8) Anterior Body Cavity (continued) •Abdominopelvic Cavity—Subdivided into superior Abdominal Cavity (diaphragm to bony pelvis) and inferior Pelvic Cavity (within bony pelvis) •Contains organs from digestive, lymphatic, urinary, and reproductive systems •Peritoneal Cavity—Abdominal subcavity found within serous membranes Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (4 of 8) Abdominopelvic Cavity can be divided into segments by drawing imaginary lines through its surface •One system divides the cavity into four Quadrants –Right and left upper quadrants (R U Q and L U Q); Right and left lower quadrants (R L Q and L L Q) •A second system divides the cavity into nine Regions –Right and left hypochondriac regions, Right and left lumbar regions; Right and left iliac regions; Epigastric region; Umbilical region; Hypogastric region Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (5 of 8) Figure 1.11 The four quadrants and nine regions of the abdominopelvic cavity. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Abdominal Pain •Abdominal pain is a common reason for people to seek health care, but the number of structures in the abdominopelvic cavity make diagnoses difficult •The four-quadrant system helps to narrow down potential diagnoses •For example, R L Q pain may be from the appendix, ovaries in female, the first part of the large intestine, or the last portion of the small intestine Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (6 of 8) Serous Membranes—Thin sheets of tissue that fold over to form continuous double-layered structures filled with Serous Fluid to lubricate organs in the cavity –Visceral Layer—Contacts the organ –Parietal Layer—Attaches to surrounding structures Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (7 of 8) Serous Membranes (continued) •Pleural Membranes—Surround the lungs; Includes parietal and visceral pleura •Pericardial Membranes—Surround the heart; Includes parietal and visceral pericardium •Peritoneal Membranes—Surround some abdominal organs (Intraperitoneal); Includes parietal and visceral peritoneum •Organs behind the parietal peritoneum are Retroperitoneal Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 The Anterior Body Cavity (8 of 8) Figure 1.13 The serous membranes of the anterior body cavities. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (1 of 2) •Used to look inside patients without surgery; Different forms of radiation form images of internal structures often along specific planes •X-Ray uses ionizing radiation; Chest image is shown (top) •Computed Tomography Scan (C T) uses ionizing radiation; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of abdominopelvic and peritoneal cavities is shown (bottom) Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.4 Medical Imaging (2 of 2) •Magnetic Resonance Imaging (M R I) involves the body being placed within a magnetic field; 3-D image is computer generated from data; Transverse section of the abdominopelvic cavity is shown Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Core Principles in Anatomy and Physiology Core Principles—Set of basic concepts of anatomy and physiology that are revisited repeatedly in the text; They are related to maintaining the body’s internal environment •Feedback Loops •Relationship of Structure and Function •Gradients •Cell-Cell Communication Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Overall Theme: Physiological Processes Operate to Maintain the Body’s Homeostasis •Homeostasis—The condition in which the body develops and maintains a relatively stable internal environment –Homeostatic Imbalances—Disturbances in homeostasis can lead to disease or death if uncorrected –Regulated Variables—Variables in the internal environment, such as temperature, blood sugar, and many others, are controlled to stay close to a particular normal value –Controlled Variables—Variables that are manipulated to maintain the regulated variables, such as the process that increases blood sugar from stored carbohydrates Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (1 of 8) Feedback Loops—A change in a regulated variable causes effects that feed back and in turn affect that same variable •Made up of a series of events that lead to an output •As the loops continue, this output then influences the events of the loops themselves •Negative Feedback Loops—Oppose the initial change and reduce the output •Positive Feedback Loops—Reinforce the initial change and increase the output Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (2 of 8) Negative Feedback Loops—Promote stability; Negating any stimulus that moves a variable away from homeostasis •Each variable has a Set Point that includes a Normal Range around that set point •The range differs for individual variables Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (3 of 8) Steps of a Negative Feedback Loop 1.Stimulus—Information that a regulated variable is outside the normal range 2.Receptor or Sensor—Cellular structure that registers the stimulus 3.Control Center—Stimulus is sent to the control center (brain or gland) by the nervous or endocrine systems 4.Effector—The cells or organ that will react 5.Responses—Effector causes the response that will return the variable to the normal range Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (4 of 8) Figure 1.14 Control of room temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (5 of 8) Figure 1.15 Control of body temperature by a negative feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (6 of 8) Study Boost: Keeping Track of the Body’s Feedback Loops •Feedback loops occur in all body systems so there are many to remember •As you learn new feedback loops, add them to the Feedback Loops Master List page at the front of the Active-Learning Workbook •Use the list to quiz yourself “Bring It Back,” review feedback loops from other chapters “Space It Out,” and have a friend quiz you from the list in a random order “Mix It Up” Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (7 of 8) Positive Feedback Loops—Less common than negative feedback loops; Increases the response to a stimulus; Reinforces the initial stimulus •Will eventually shut off in response to an external stimulus or some outside event that is not part of the positive feedback loop •Positive feedback loops are often found within a negative feedback loop to produce a quicker response Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Feedback Loops Are a Key Mechanism Used to Maintain Homeostasis (8 of 8) Figure 1.16 Control of blood clotting by a positive feedback loop. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (1 of 2) •Misconception 1: Negative feedback is bad for the body; Positive feedback is good –Under normal circumstances, both types of feedback loops promote homeostasis •Misconception 2: Maintaining homeostasis means the body’s internal environment is static or unchanging –Maintenance of normal ranges does not mean the internal environment is unchanging; Changes are normal and are occurring constantly Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Common Misconceptions about Homeostasis (2 of 2) •Misconception 3: Regulatory mechanisms and feedback loops are either “on” or “off,” like a switch –The internal environment is dynamic so feedback loops always exhibit some degree of activity •Misconception 4: Any physiological variable can be controlled –Variables can only be controlled through feedback loops if receptors exist to detect changes in the set point Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 BioFlix: Homeostasis Use the link below to view A D A compliant video: BioFlix: Homeostasis https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/loMS4qosEmL53haP3z1Z_eWMupIkyIFv Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Childbirth, Pitocin, and Positive Feedback Loops •Childbirth begins when a woman goes into labor, which occurs by a positive feedback loop •Baby’s head stretches the cervix (stimulus); Data from nerves in the cervix (receptors) are sent to the brain (control center); Uterus (effector) produces hormone oxytocin which stimulates uterine contractions (response); This continues and is amplified until the baby is born, which stops the feedback loop •Pitocin is a synthetic version of oxytocin that is used when labor needs to be artificially started, or induced Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Structure and Function are Related at All Levels of Organization Principle of Complementarity of Structure and Function •The form of a structure is such that it best suits its function; Applies to all levels of organization Figure 1.17 The relationship between structure and function. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Gradients Drive Many Physiological Processes Gradients are present any time more of something exists in one area than another and the two areas are connected •Gradients drive many of our physiological processes Figure 1.18 Examples of gradients. Copyright © 2025, 2019, 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved 1.5 Cell-Cell Communication is Required to Coordinate Body Functions •Cells communicate with each other to maintain homeostasis •Electrical Signals are transmitted between neighboring cells •Chemical Messengers released from cells may work on neighboring cells or move to other cells through body fluids Figure 1.19 Communication between a nerve cell and a muscle cell.

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