Results for "phonemes"

April 1 - Phonemes and suprasegmentals

Vowel Phonemes - Placement

The real Professor(s) Higgins: Section 1–a professor of Phonetics: Henry Sweet, phonetician: The whole point of his “Current shorthand” is that it can express every sound in the language perfectly, vowels as consonants, and that your hand has to make no stroke except for the easy and current ones with which you write m, n, l, p and q, scribbling them at whatever angle comes easiest to you, his unfortunate determination to make this remarkable and quite legible script serve also as a Shorthand reduced it in his own practice to the most inscrutable of cryptograms. HIS TRUE OBJECTIVE WAS the provision of a full, accurate. Legible script for ur noble but ill-dressed language; but he was led past by his contempt for the popular Pitman system of Shorthand, which he called the Pytfall system. —> the triumph of Pitman was because of business organisation: cheap textbooks and exercise books were available in this and school where experienced teachers coached you up to the necessary sufficient. Sweet couldn’t organise his market in that fashion—> he was angry at Oxford for the failure of it to do justice to his eminence. Such people as phoneticians are among the most important people in England right now. Pygmalion (1938-12) shows the figure of a Phoenician, a linguist who studies languages scientifically and whose existence is usually confined to the knowledge of very few people belonging to the field, emerged publicly for the first time. Section 2.2– The Philological Society Established in 1830 it is the oldest learned society in Great Britain devoted to the scholarly study of language and languages. It had a particular interest in historical comparative linguistics and maintains its traditional interest in the structure, development and varieties of Modern English. The society experiences a period of heightened success in the 1860’s-70s with phoneticians suc as Alexander John Ellis and Henry Sweet — through the years it continued to attract known scholars like Bopp and Grimm. The greatest achievement to date is what has since remained the foremost authoritative dictionary of the English language: Oxford English Dictionary, whose first official dictionary was Augustus Henry Murray. Daniel Jones: played a key role in the development and Institutionalisation of the study of phonetic in England. In 1907 he secured a part-time lectureship in phonetics at University College in London —> his reputation soon expanded and in 1911 he was named Britain’s first Professor of Phonetics. He produced an extremely large number of publications and transcripts which offered meticulous descriptions of English phonetics ì, especially directed at second language learners, and explanations of other languages such as Cornish, Sindhi and Ga. Besides, he published analyses of French, Spanish, Italian, Russian and Cantonese. He identified and systemised the eight Cardinal vowels. He was also interested in the improvement of orthography. He was more concerned about practical matters, he developed a new concept of phoneme, considering phonemes as families of sounds, each appropriate to a specific phonetic context. He also distinguished prosodic features from phonemes and coined the terms chroneme and toneme to denote differences in length and pitch. he invested time in scientific descriptions of his analyses by means of photos of his own lip movements, X-rays of his tongue positions, oscillograms. He recorded his voice, and in 1956 he recorded his pronunciation of the Cardinal Vowels on gramophone records (Thomas 2011). The next paragraphs will illustrate some of these descriptions concerning Cardinal Vowels in detail, and one of Daniel Jones's major works, the English Pronouncing Dictionary (1917), which both students and teachers, native and non-native speakers of English, still use nowadays (almost 100 years later!) as a major reference for the pronunciation of the English language. One of the main aims characterizing his works was to provide the learner with a scientific study of the English speech sounds and their distribution in connected speech. It is, indeed, with this idea in mind that he identified and systematized the eight Cardinal Vowels as a technique for characterizing the vowel inventories of language (i.e. of all languages), and illustrated the speech sounds of English to give foreigners the scientific information needed in order to learn educated Southern English, in an appreciably lighter fashion ones 1922: Il. The general idea behind the concept of Cardinal Vowels is that they demarcate the articulatory vowel space that speakers have at their disposal; consequently, such vowels can be regarded as reference points for the phonetic description and transcription of any language. For this purpose, and with the firm conviction that these vowel sounds can only be learnt from a teacher who knows how to make them or from a gramophone record or tape record, Daniel Jones recorded his pronunciation of the Cardinal Vowels on gramophone records'". The following extract describes their use as presented by Daniels Jones himself in the booklet which accompanied his two-record set in 1956: + ++ Section 4–playing Mr. Higgins: Praat (Dutch for talk) is a freeware program for the analysis and reconstruction of acoustic speech signals. Student could use it for: Recording themselves in order to compare their English to other’s Explore varieties of English Become more familiar with the language features studied theoretically during linguistic courses. 4.1.1–The Praat windows: A variety of windows will open, it is better to explore the main windows before starting to use the actual Spectrogram. Praat objects windows: is used to open, create and save files, as well as, to open the various editors and queries which will be needed to work with sound files. Praat picture windows: used to create and display publication-quality images. Praat editor windows: mostly used when examining a sound file, the spectrogram on the bottom, and selections and measurements can be taken by using the cursor. Praat info windows: will pop up with the specific result when a query is made either in the editor window or the objects window. TO KNOW: Pitch: quality of a sound governed by the rate of vibrations producing it; the degree or highness or lowness of a tone. The intensity of a sound wave: is measured in decibels and represents the power and loudness of the wave. A dormant (called f1, f2, f3, f4 —> voice) is a concentration of acoustic energy around a particular frequency in the speech wave, it emphasises the harmonic, with higher amplitudes of a speech sound. —> f0 is the lowest frequency of a complex sound and is equal to the Pitch of one’s voice. F1 and F2 are important for vowels, while using dormant patterns, acoustic phonetics makes it possible to define specific vowels and differentiate them from one another. F1 describes the height of the tongue when the vowel is being produced, whereas f2 reflects the place of the tongue and the rounding of the lips —> will be further apart for front vowels and closer together for back vowels. Pulses: are single vibrations or short bursts of sound which produce variations in air pressure —> occur in pulse-like manner, pushing the air out of the mouth or nose and displacing air with pulse. —> can be represented as a waveform. 4.1.2—Recording, opening, and saving sounds: To record sounds using Praat, a microphone, sound card, or external ADC (Analog-Digital Conversion) box will have to be plugged in to a computer before starting Praat, and then: Objects → New → Record Mono (at this stage the Sound recorder window will pop up, see Figure 32). The Sound recorder window Through the Sound recorder window it will be possible to choose the sampling frequency (the default, 44100 Hz, is fine for most purposes), the microphone or other sound source, and whether to record a mono or stereo sound. In order to record and then to stop the recording, Record and Stop will have to be pressed respectively, being careful that the sound level ar stays within the green range to avoid clipping"?. Once a recordinglas been made, it will have to be named and saved, It will then show up in the Praat objects window where it's ready for editing. Praat can only record one minute long chunks, to record longer sounds, the buffer size in Praat → Preferences → Sound Recording Preferences will have to be changed, otherwise another software program to record the session can be used and then the sounds can be imported into Praat for analysis and manipulation. If there is no need to record a sound because one has already been recorded lin aif, wav or flac format®, there are two ways to open it in Praat: on Mac OS X, the supported files can be dragged onto the Praat icon in the dock, otherwise: Objects → Open → Read trom File... as it works for other operating systems. Once the files have been uploaded, they will appear in the Objects window for further use. To save a file, given that files are never saved by default by Praat, the file in the Objects window will have to be selected, then: Objects → Save → Save as file. 4.1.3–Measuring waveforms and spectrograms: Once a sound has been recorded and/or opened in Editor window via Objects → View & Edit, the Waveform of the sound will be represented as in Figure 25 above and, if the sound is sufficiently short, a broadband Spectrogram showing the spectral energy of the sound over time, will be displayed. In addition, a series of red dots (representing the Formants), blue lines (representing the speaker's Pitch), and a yellow line (representing the Intensity) might also be present. These can be enabled and disabled in the Editor → View → Show Analyses menu. The cursor will spawn two dotted lines by clicking within the Editor window. A vertical bar will show the time within the sound where it has been clicked (labeled at the top in seconds) and, by clicking within the Spectrogram, a horizontal bar will show the frequency at the cursor (labeled on the left in red). If the Pitch or Intensity tracks are displayed where the cursor is placed, values at the time the cursor represent will be given on the left side of the editor window. In addition, portions of the sound can be selected by clicking and dragging them (or by using the Select menu). The time of the start and finish of the selection will be displayed in red, and the duration of the selection (in seconds) will be displayed in the top of the bar. The three gray bars at the bottom of the editor window can be used to play a sound in the editor window. The bottom-most bai (Total Duration) will play the entire sound. The middle bar (Visible Part) will play only the visible portion of the sound. The different sections of the top bar (split by the cursor or selection), when clicked, will play the corresponding pieces of the visible portions of the sound file. Hitting < tab> also plays the visible portion of the file. To view some analyses and to get a closer look at the data, the five buttons in the bottom left corner of the window will have to be selected: all shows the entire file, in and out zoom in and out, sel zooms to make the current selection fill the window, and bak zooms back to the previous zoom level. When dealing with long sound files, in order to view analyses like the spectrogram and formants, zooming in will have to be selected to show only a pre-defined amount of time. The Group setting in the bottom right corner of the window will ensure that if two sounds are open in Editor windows at once, they will share the same zoom characteristics. This is best used to compare two versions of the same file, say, an original versus one with an acoustic modification made. 4.1.4– Viewing Pitch via a Narrowband Spectrogram: The most reliable way of getting a sense of the Pitch through the course of the word in Praat is by examining a narrowband Spectrogram 2 with a reduced visible range 0 - 400 Hz for speech). This can be done by editing the Spectrogram settings as described here: To make changes to the spectrogram settings, Editor → Spectrum → Spectrogram Settings will have to be selected. This will pull up the Spectrogram settings window where there are two very important settings: the window length and view range. Window length (given in seconds) controls how large of a chunk of the sound Praat will examine when trying to find the frequencies present at a given moment in the signal. Looking at a larger window of the sound will give more accurate information about the frequencies present, but will also reduce the accuracy of the temporal information given. Varying the window length enables one to choose between Broadband and Narrowband spectrograms. View range controls how much of the spectrum is visible. For speech, one is likely be interested in the range from 0 to 5000 or 6000 Hz, but if examining fricatives, it might be interesting to look as high as 15,000 Hz. For music, instead, one may focus on the area from 100 to 2000 Hz. If the sound files have a relatively small or large dynamic range (the difference in volume between the loudest and quietest parts), or if the spectrograms seems too light or too dark, the dynamic range setting can be adjusted here, but 50 dB is usually safe. The contours of the harmonics will accurately represent the Pitch contours of the voice during the word, and doing this will offer a sense of the contour before using the Pich tracker for more precise measurement. Praat also has the ability to provide a Pitch track in the Editor window: Editor → Pich → Show Pitch will select it in the Editor window. At this point, a blue line will be placed on top of the Spectrogram representing the Pitch (see Figure 33). Once the Pitch track is placed, the cursor can be used to check the Pitch at any given point in the word by placing it and checking the middle blue number on the right side of the window. The cursor can also be placed at a given point in the file and Editor → Pitch → Get Pitch. Running Editor → Pitch → Get Pitch when a chunk of the sound is collected will return the average pitch during that selection

DEVELOPMENT OF PALATAL PHONEMES

Consonant Phonemes of English

Vowel Phonemes of English

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Chronological development A method of organization that describes events in the order in which they occurred Lifespan development the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, and stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span Nature and nurture the debate of weather you are shaped by your environment or genes Continuous development view that development is a cumulative process: gradually improving on existing skills Discontinuous development view that development takes place in unique stages, which happen at specific times or ages teratogens agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm Fine motor coordination - involves small muscle groups - usually includes finger dexterity and/or skilled manipulation of objects with the hands Gross motor coordination -- Ability to coordinate large muscle movements as in running, walking, skipping, and throwing. Maturation biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience Reflexes specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation Rooting reflex a baby's tendency, when touched on the cheek, to turn toward the touch, open the mouth, and search for the nipple Visual cliff a laboratory device for testing depth perception in infants and young animals Critical periods Periods in the developmental sequence during which an organism must experience certain kinds of social or sensory experiences in order for normal development to take place Sensitive periods time periods when specific skills develop most easily Imprinting the process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period Growth spurt The relatively sudden and rapid physical growth that occurs during puberty. Each body part increases in size on a schedule: Weight usually precedes height, and growth of the limbs precedes growth of the torso. Puberty the period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproducing Primary sex characteristics the body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible Secondary sex characteristics nonreproductive sexual characteristics, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair Menarche the first menstrual period Spermarche first ejaculation Menopause the time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines Schemas Concepts or mental frameworks that organize and interpret information. assimilation interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas accommodation adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information sensorimotor stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years of age) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities object permanence the awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived Preoperational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage (from about 2 to 6 or 7 years of age) during which a child learns to use language but does not yet comprehend the mental operations of concrete logic Mental symbols represent objects in the real world Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Conservation the principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the forms of objects Reversibility the capacity to think through a series of steps and then mentally reverse direction, returning to the starting point Animism Belief that objects, such as plants and stones, or natural events, like thunderstorms and earthquakes, have a discrete spirit and conscious life. Egocentrism in Piaget's theory, the preoperational child's difficulty taking another's point of view Theory of mind an awareness that other people's behavior may be influenced by beliefs, desires, and emotions that differ from one's own Concrete operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (from about 6 or 7 to 11 years of age) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events Systematic thinking approaches problems in a rational, step-by-step, and analytical fashion Formal operational stage in Piaget's theory, the stage of cognitive development (normally beginning about age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts Abstract thinking capacity to understand hypothetical concepts Scaffolding Adjusting the support offered during a teaching session to fit the child's current level of performance Zone of proximal development (ZPD) Vygotsky's concept of the difference between what a child can do alone and what that child can do with the help of a teacher Crystallized intelligence our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; tends to increase with age Fluid intelligence our ability to reason speedily and abstractly; tends to decrease during late adulthood Dementia a slowly progressive decline in mental abilities, including memory, thinking, and judgment, that is often accompanied by personality changes Phonemes in language, the smallest distinctive sound unit Morphemes The smallest units of meaning in a language. Semantics the set of rules by which we derive meaning from morphemes, words, and sentences in a given language; also, the study of meaning Grammar in a language, a system of rules that enables us to communicate with and understand others Syntax Sentence structure Cooing early vowel-like sounds that babies produce Babbling stage of language development at about 4 months when an infant spontaneously utters nonsense sounds One-word stage the stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words Telegraphic speech early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram—"go car"—using mostly nouns and verbs. Overgeneralization of language rules Applying a regular grammatical rule in an irregular situation. Example: "I runned", "he hitted", "you buyed" Ecological systems theory views the person as developing within a complex system of relationships affected by multiple levels of the surrounding environment Microsystem the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment Mesosystem connections between microsystems Exosystem social settings that a person may not experience firsthand but that still influence development Macrosystem consists of cultural values, laws, customs, and resources Chronosystem historical changes that influence the other systems Authoritarian parenting style of parenting in which parent is rigid and overly strict, showing little warmth to the child Authoritative parenting parenting style characterized by emotional warmth, high standards for behavior, explanation and consistent enforcement of rules, and inclusion of children in decision making Permissive parenting A parenting style characterized by the placement of few limits on the child's behavior. Attachment styles The expectations people develop about relationships with others, based on the relationship they had with their primary caregiver when they were infants Secure attachment a relationship in which an infant obtains both comfort and confidence from the presence of his or her caregiver Insecure attachment demonstrated by infants who display either a clinging, anxious attachment or an avoidant attachment that resists closeness Avoidant attachment attachments marked by discomfort over, or resistance to, being close to others Anxious attachment attachments marked by anxiety or ambivalence. an insecure attachment style disorganized attachment characterized by the child's odd behavior when faced with the parent; type of attachment seen most often with kids that are abused Temperment a person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity Separation anxiety the distress displayed by infants when a customary care provider departs Parallel play activity in which children play side by side without interacting Pretend play make-believe activities in which children create new symbolic relations, acting as if they were in a situation different from their actual one Imaginary Audience adolescents' belief that they are the focus of everyone else's attention and concern Personal fable type of thought common to adolescents in which young people believe themselves to be unique and protected from harm Social clock the culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement Emerging adulthood a period from about age 18 to the mid-twenties, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults Stage theory of psychosocial development Erikson's theory; 8 stages with distinct conflicts between two opposing states that shape personality Trust vs. mistrust Refers to a stage of development from birth to approximately 18 months of age, during which infants gain trust of their parents or caregivers if their world is planned, organized, and routine. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt Erikson's stage in which a toddler learns to exercise will and to do things independently; failure to do so causes shame and doubt Initiative v. guilt 3rd stage in Erikson's model; preschoolers must learn to start and direct creative tasks, or they may feel guilty about asserting themselves Industry v. Inferiority 4th stage in Erikson's model; children must master the skills valued by their society or feel inferior Identity v. role confusion 5th stage in Erikson's model; adolescents must develop a sense of identity or suffer lack of direction Intimacy v. isolation 6th stage in Erikson's model; young adults must form close, satisfying relationships or suffer loneliness Generativity vs. Stagnation Erikson's 7th stage of social development in which middle-aged people begin to devote themselves more to fulfilling one's potential and doing public service Integrity v. despair 8th stage in Erikson's model; when reflecting at the end of life, an older adult must feel a sense of satisfaction or experience despair (feelings of having wasted one's life) Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs) Stressful or traumatic experiences, including abuse, neglect, and a range of household dysfunction, such as witnessing domestic violence or growing up with substance abuse, mental disorders, parental discord, or crime in the home. Achievement (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development that occurs when identity commitments are made after a period of exploration. Diffusion (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where no commitments are made to identity Foreclosure (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where commitments are made to identity without first an exploration Moratorium (adolescent development) Stage of adolescent identity development where they are actively engaged in identity exploration racial and ethnic identity the sense of membership in a racial or ethnic group and the feelings that are associated with that membership Sexual orientation an enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation) Religious identity a sense of belonging to a religious group Occupational identity Occupations that we engage in define who we are Familial identity the sense of self as always connected to family and others Possible selves images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future Behavioral perspective An approach to the study of psychology that focuses on the role of learning in explaining observable behavior. Classical conditioning a type of learning in which one learns to link two or more stimuli and anticipate events Association any connection between thoughts, feelings, or experiences that leads one to recall another Acquisition In classical conditioning, the initial stage, when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering the conditioned response. In operant conditioning, the strengthening of a reinforced response. Associative learning learning that certain events occur together. The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning). Unconditioned stimulus (US) in classical conditioning, a stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response. Unconditioned response (UR) In classical conditioning, the unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus (US), such as salivation when food is in the mouth. Conditioned response (CR) in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS) Conditioned Stimulus (CS) in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response Extinction the diminishing of a conditioned response; occurs in classical conditioning when an unconditioned stimulus (US) does not follow a conditioned stimulus (CS); occurs in operant conditioning when a response is no longer reinforced. Spontaneous recovery the reappearance, after a pause, of an extinguished conditioned response Stimulus discrimination a differentiation between two similar stimuli when only one of them is consistently associated with the unconditioned stimulus stimulus generalization learning that occurs when stimuli that are similar but not identical to the conditioned stimulus produce the conditioned response Higher-order conditioning a procedure in which the conditioned stimulus in one conditioning experience is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second (often weaker) conditioned stimulus. For example, an animal that has learned that a tone predicts food might then learn that a light predicts the tone and begin responding to the light alone. (Also called second-order conditioning.) Counterconditioning a behavior therapy procedure that uses classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors; includes exposure therapies and aversive conditioning Taste aversion a type of classical conditioning in which a previously desirable or neutral food comes to be perceived as repugnant because it is associated with negative stimulation One-trial conditioning when one pairing of CS and a US produces considerable learning Habituation decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation. As infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their interest wanes and they look away sooner. Operant conditioning a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher Reinforcement in operant conditioning, any event that strengthens the behavior it follows Punishment an event that decreases the behavior that it follows Law of effect Thorndike's principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and that behaviors followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely Positive reinforcement Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food.Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response. Negative reinforcement Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock. Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.) Primary reinforcers Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs Secondary reinforcers learned reinforcers, such as money, that develop their reinforcing properties because of their association with primary reinforcers Shaping an operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior Instinctive drift the tendency of learned behavior to gradually revert to biologically predisposed patterns Superstitious behavior a behavior repeated because it seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually unnecessary Learned helplessness the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events Reinforcement schedule a pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced fixed interval reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after a specific time interval has passed after a response Fixed ratio reinforcement reinforces a response only after a specified number of responses Variable ratio reinforcement A form of partial reinforcement where rewards are provided after an unpredictable number of responses Scalloped graph The graphed pattern of a fixed interval reinforcement schedule Social learning theory the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished Vicarious conditioning classical conditioning of a reflex response or emotion by watching the reaction of another person Modeling learning by imitating others; copying behavior Insight learning The process of learning how to solve a problem or do something new by applying what is already known Latent learning learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it Cognitive maps An internal representation of the spatial relationships between objects in an animal's surroundings.

Phonemes, Peds considerations, Audiometry

Phonetic Descriptions of American English Consonant Phonemes

Phonemes

IPA English Vowel Phonemes (Stressed, Unstressed, and R-Colored)

Phonemes

Phonemes

German phonemes

Psych Unit 3 Phonemes to the end

Phonemes vs allophones

Spanish Phonemes

Child Language Acquisition - Types of Phonemes (Consonants)

English phonemes