BIO105 Test 1 Review Topics
1. Know from smallest to largest (cell, organs, systems, etc.)
Atom->molecule->macromolecule->organelle->cell->tissue->organ->organ system-> organism
2. The anatomy of an atom. (electrons, protons, and neutrons.) Location and charges.
-Neutrons are neutral (uncharged)
+Protons are positively charged
Neutrons and protons make up the nucleus
-Electrons are negatively charged and orbit around nucleus. Dots in ring
Rings/shells = electron shells
3. What is homeostasis and what’s its role in the human body?
The ability to maintain a relatively constant internal environment in body. Regulating temperature, pH, and glucose levels.
4. What’s the difference between negative and positive feedback loops understand examples of each.
Negative feedback - the output of the system resolves or corrects original stimulus. 99% homeostatic mechanism.
Ex: if u set thermos stat to 68-> thermos stat activates furnace->heat output (heat)-> Room rises to 70 and up. -> Then thermos stat shuts off furnace-> room cools down.
Ex 2: if ur hot, ur body will want neg feedback to cool off. Results in blood flow close to skin (rosy cheeks), sweat glands release sweat. If ur cold, ur muscles will involuntarily contract (shiver) resulting in a rise in body temp.
Positive feedback- mechanism for increasing change of interval environment in 1 direction. These loops amplify charges, moving the body further away from its starting condition
Ex~ the secretion of oxytocin during birth to continually increase uterine contractions.
1.head of fetus pushes against cervix 2. Neve impulses from cervix transmitted to brain 3. Brain stimulates pituitary gland to secrete oxytocin 4. Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions & pushes fetus toward cervix.
5. What are the three major types of bonds discussed in class?
1- ionic: steals/ transfers 1 or more electrons. Like Na+ Cl- (sodium chloride)
2- covalent: formed by sharing 2 or more electrons. Polar and non polar
3- hydrogen: intermolecular bonds involving hydrogen and another element such as oxygen or nitrogen.
6. What are the properties of these bonds and examples of each. (sharing vs stealing electrons)
stealing electrons are ionic bonds.
Sharing bonds are covalent bond
Hydrogen bonds are intermolecular bonds involving hydrogen and another element such as
oxygen or nitrogen.
*7. What kind of bonds can water form?
Covalent bonds within a molecule between hydrogen and oxygen and hydrogen bonds between different water molecules.
8. What type of bonds are responsible for the shape of proteins and DNA?
Hydrogen bonds are critical for the 3d shape of proteins and DNA.
9. What are some examples of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides (simple sugars): Glucose (major fuel source 4 cells), fructose, galactose
Disaccharides (double sugars): Sucrose (table sugar), lactose (milk sugar), maltose
Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates): Starch (plant energy storage), glycogen (animal energy storage), cellulose (plant cell wall component)
10. What elements are found in carbohydrates?
Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen. C6H12O6
11. What 3 letters hint you are a carbohydrate?
“Ose”
*12. What’s the difference between dehydration synthesis and hydrolysis reactions?
Dehydration synthesis reactions lets cell store excess carbs in from of glycogen. (a polysaccharide which forms glucose on hydrolysis)
Hydrolysis reactions allow cell to break bonds holding the polysaccharide tg allowing it to release more simple sugars.
Dehydration Reactants: When two monosaccharides combine, water is removed to form a disaccharide (dehydration reaction).
Hydrolysis Reactants: When water is added back, it breaks apart disaccharides into monosaccharides again (hydrolysis reaction).
13. Give examples of disaccharides.
Disaccharides (double sugars)- sucrose, lactose, and maltose
14. What’s the difference between glycogen and starch?
Polysaccharides (complex carbohydrates/carbon rings formed by dehydration synthesis): Glycogen is the storage form in animals. Highly branched for quick energy release.
Starch is the storage form in plants. less branched and made of amylose and amylopectin.
15. What are some roles of lipids in the human body?
- used as energy molecules
- Found in cell membranes
- Don’t dissolve in water (hydrophobic)
- Found in fats,oils, phospholipids and steroids
- Solid at room temp
- steroid is a lipid
- Function for long term energy storage
Insulation from heat loss
Cushion for organs
Oils-liquid at room temp
Lipids serve as energy storage, provide insulation and protection for organs, make up cell membranes, help produce hormones, and assist in absorbing fat-soluble vitamins.
16. Where are phospholipids found in the human body?
In cell membranes throughout the human body. Primary component of cellular membranes.
17. What are some major functions of proteins?
Providing structural support collagen, elastin and keratin colds body tg,
catalyzing reactions as enzymes, increase rate of chem reaction the rate of hydrolysis of starch , transporting molecules, defending against pathogens as antibodies, enabling movement in muscle, and regulating processes as hormones. communication- act as chemical messengers btwn body areas hormones such as insulin
Movement, enzymes, structures, communication, transport. Allow substances to enter/exit cells carry hemoglobin, lipoprotiens in blood
18. Describe the levels of protein structure and examples of each.
Primary: Sequence of amino acids (insulin).
Secondary: hydrogen bonds form creating alpha-helices or beta pleated sheets (keratin). Tertiary: superimposed folding ofsecondary structures most enzymes in dis form. Overall 3D shape of a single chain (myoglobin) Quaternary: polypeptide chains linked tg in specific manner (hemoglobin).
19. What does denaturing do to proteins? Which bonds did they affect?
Temp rises, ph acid too low, hydrogen bonds are broken from complex tertiary level proteins to basic primary structure. Peptide bonds still intact. Visible changes u see when frying an egg. Clear yolk-> denatures to white
Denaturing disrupts the structure of proteins, causing them to lose their functional shape. It affects non-covalent bonds such as hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic interactions, as well as disulfide bridges.
20. What does hydrolysis do to proteins? Which bonds did they affect?
Hydrolysis breaks down protein into smaller peptides or animo acids by adding water. It affects the peptide bonds between amino acids
*21. How do enzymes work and what effect do they have on activation energy?
Enzymes work by binding to substrates and catalyzing chemical reactions. They lower the activation energy required for the reaction, making it proceed faster. slide 33
22. What nitrogenous bases are found in DNA.
Adenine (A), thymine (T), cytosine (c), and guanine (g).
23. What nitrogenous bases are found in RNA.
RNA Adenine (A), uracil (U), cytosine (c), and guanine (g)
*24. What are some differences between DNA and RNA.
DNA
–Sugar is deoxyribose
–Bases include A, T, C, and G
–Double-stranded
-DNA stores genetic info
•RNA
–Sugar is ribose
–Bases include A, U, C, and G
–Single-stranded
Help in protein synthesis
*25. What is the cellular currency to do work and where is it produced?
The cellular currency to do work is ATP (adenosine triphosphate). It is produced primarily in the mitochondria through cellular respiration.
*26. What is the cell membrane composed of?
It is composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins. Allow things in and out of cell, allow for cell recognition. Security guard
It also contains cholesterol and carbohydrates, which help maintain its structure and function.
27. What is the role of the mitochondria?
Known as powerhouse of the cell. In presence of oxygen, it can convert organic macromolecules into energy for the cell (atp). Helps regulate cell growth and cell cycle
28. What is the rough endoplasmic reticulum and what organelle is embedded in it to give it the rough appearance? What occurs in this organelle? It is the site of ………?
Ribosomes: site for protein synthesis
Assemble and shape proteins
29. What is the role of the Golgi apparatus?
Receives vesicles from endoplasmic reticulum and further process, packages, and deliver proteins and lipids from the cell (ups 📦)
30. What is the largest organelle in the cell and what does it store?
The largest organelle in the cell is the nucleus, it stores the cell’s genetic material (DNA)
31. What are four examples of passive transport? 40
Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, filtration
32. What are four examples of active transport?
Sodium-potassium pump, endocytosis, exocytosis, proton pump
33. What are major differences between active and passive transport?
Active transport needs energy & moves substances against their gradient, while passive transport doesn’t need energy and moves substances along their gradient. P=pushing ball down hill
34. Know the difference between a solvent(water) and solutes(sodium. Aka Na)? Which one moves during osmosis?
In osmosis, water (solvent) moves, while sodium (the solute) doesn’t
35. Understand the differences between isotonic, hypotonic, and hypotonic environments.
Isotonic: The concentration of solutes is the same inside and outside the cell, no net water movement.
Hypotonic: swell. The outside environment has a lower concentration of solutes than inside the cell, water moves into the cell.
Hypertonic: shrink. The outside environment has a higher concentration of solutes than inside the cell, water moves out of the cell.
36. Phagocytosis and pinocytosis are examples of active or passive transport? The difference between both.
Examples pf active transport.
Phagocytosis: The cell forming a phagosome. It’s often referred to as “cell eating”.
Pinocytosis: The cell engulfs extracellular fluid and its dissolved solutes, forming small vesicles. It’s often referred to as “cell drinking”.
*37. How is energy created from adenine triphosphate (ATP). What is broken to create this energy?
Energy is created from ATP when the bond between the second and third phosphate groups is broken converting ATP to ADP (adenosine diphosphate)
38. What is DNA composed of?
Nucleotides=building blocks of dna and rna, which include sugar, a phosphate group, and nitrogenous bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, and guanine)
Functions as blueprint that will drive all cellular activities
Taccgcccttgcgtactcact
^39. What is DNA replication?
Law of complementary base pairing allows building of one DNA strand based on the bases in 2nd strand
$40. What is transcription?
Is the process by which the genetic information in DNA is copied into messenger RNA (mRNA). This mRNA then carries the genetic code from the DNA in the nucleus to the ribosomes, where proteins are synthesized
–Complimentary base pairing of DNA to form the messenger RNA (mRNA) results in a series of codons
–mRNA migrates out of the nucleus to a ribosome in the cytoplasm
Transcription is copying recipe from cookcook onto index card, and using that recipe to bake cake would transcription
41. Where in the cell does transcription occur?
Nucleus
42. What macromolecules are involved in transcription and what is the result?
DNA and RNA are involved in transcriptions resulting in mRNA results in series of codons
^43. What are the complementary base pair rules for DNA and RNA?
Rna, T switches to U. AU UA CG GC
Dna has T. AT TA GC CG
In DNA, A pairs with T and C pairs with G.
In RNA, A pairs with U and C with G.
*44. What is translation and where does it occur?
Translation (mRNA to tRNA to Protein )
mRNA (codon) is complimented on ribosome by Transfer RNAs (tRNA’s) which transfers amino acids to the ribosome
amino acids are assembled into a protein molecule
Translation is the process of translating the sequence of a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule to a sequence of amino acids during protein synthesis
*45. What are the components of the cell cycle and what happens in each part of it?
The cell cycle has interphase and mitotic phase.
-Interphase:
-G1: Cell growth and normal metabolic roles
-S: DNA replicates
-G2: growth and prepares for mitosis.
-Prophase, Metaphase, Anaphase, Telophase
-Cytokinesis: Cell divides into two daughter cells.
*46. What are the major events that happen in each phase of mitosis?
Mitosis is essential for body growth and tissue repair. Mitosis produces 2 genetically identical daughter cells as the parent cell.
Phases: PMAT
Prophase-
Metaphase-
Anaphase
Telophase
*47. What are the major phases of cellular respiration?
Glycolysis- breaks down 2 pryvurate
Citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle)- cyclical pathway that occurs in mitochondria. Produces NADH and 2 atp, releases carbon dioxide
Electron transport chain -32-34 atp
48. What is the major element in organic compounds that contain the energy needed to make ATP? (hint: it makes a powerful bomb!)
Carbon
^49. What are the major end products of glycolysis, intermediate, phase, Krebs, cycle, and electron transport chain.
-Glycolysis: 2 pyruvate, 2 ATP, 2 NADH.
-Intermediate Phase (Pyruvate Oxidation): Acetyl-CoA, CO2, NADH, atp
-Krebs Cycle: CO2, NADH, 2 atp
-Electron Transport Chain: 32-34 ATP, H2O.
50. How many ATPs are produced in the various phases?
-Glycolysis: 2 ATP
-Intermediate Phase (Pyruvate Oxidation): 0 ATP
-Krebs Cycle: 2 ATP
-Electron Transport Chain: Approximately 32-34 ATP
Total: Approximately 36-38 ATP
51. What are the four primary tissue types?
Epithelial
Connective
Muscle
Nervous
52. What are the properties of epithelial tissues?
Cellularity, polarity, attachment, a vascularity, regeneration and specialized contacts
53. What’s the difference between squamous, cuboidal, and columnar cells as it relates to their function hint: think, active versus passive and number of organelles as it relates to their function.
Squamous cells are thin and flat, suited for passive processes like diffusion.
Cuboidal cells are cube-shaped and involved in active secretion and absorption, with a moderate number of organelles.
Columnar cells are tall and column-like, also active in absorption and secretion, and have many organelles for high metabolic activity.
54. Where is simple, squamous epithelium found and what’s its principal function?
Simple squamous epithelium is found in areas like the kidney glomeruli, air sacs of the lungs, lining of heart , lining of blood vessels, and lymphatic vessels, lining of ventral body cavity (serosae). Its principal function is to facilitate diffusion and filtration.
55. Where is simple cuboidal epithelium found and what’s its principal function?
Simple cuboidal epithelium is found in small ducts and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface, kidney tubules, and the thyroid.
Its principal function is secretion and absorption.
56. Where is simple columnar epithelium located and what’s its principal function?
Simple columnar epithelium is in the lining of most of digestive tract (stomach to anal canal) gallbladder, excretory ducts of sum glands, ciliated variety line small bronchi uterine tubes, sum regions of uterus. Its principal function is absorption and secretion.
57. What’s the difference between simple and stratified squamous epithelium?
Simple squamous epithelium has one layer of flat cells for diffusion, while
stratified squamous epithelium has multiple layers for protection against abrasion.
58. Where is stratified squamous epithelium located? What’s the principal function?
Stratified squamous epithelium is found in the epidermis of skin, mouth, vagina esophagus. Its principal function is to provide protection against abrasion.
59. What are common protein fibers that make up connective tissue distinguish characteristics, and locations between them?
Collagen fibers are strong and found in tendons and ligaments
Elastin fibers are stretchy, located in skin and lungs. Reticular fibers form a mesh, found in the liver and spleen.
60. What is areola connective tissue? Where is it located? And what does it look like according to Professor Smith?
Distributed under epithelial body, forms laminate propria of mucous membranes, Packages organs, surrounds capillaries.
Resembles spaghetti and meatballs.🍝
61. What’s the principal cell in adipose tissue? What are some of its functions?
White fat cells (adipocytes) have a simple structure composed of a single lipid droplet (fat molecule) and a few cellular organelles. They provide energy storage, insulation from extreme temperatures and cushioning around soft organs. Marshmellow
62. What primary tissue type is bone considered? What are key anatomical structures that make it up?
Bone is a connective tissue. Key structures include hard, calcified matrix containing many collagen fibers, osteocytes lie in lacunae, very well vascularized, stores calcium, and other minerals and fat, marrow inside bone is site for blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)
63. Where is nervous tissue found?
Brain, spinal, cord, and nerves
64. What are the three different types of muscles?
1- skeletal
2- smooth
3- cardiac
Smooth and cardiac- involuntary
65. What are major functions of bones?
1.Supports the body
2.Protects vital organs
3.Produces blood cells
4.Stores minerals (calcium and phosphate) and fat
5.Allows for movement by attaching muscles
66. Name the 3 different bone cells, and how their function is different. Under what circumstance do these bone cells become active?
Osteoblasts: form new bone by secreting the bone matrix. They are active during growth, healing, and remodeling.
Osteocytes: Mature bone cells that maintain the bone matrix. They become active in response to mechanical stress and hormonal signals.
Osteoclasts: break down bone tissue. They are active during bone remodeling and when calcium needs to be released into the bloodstream.
67. What is osteoporosis and when is it most common?
Osteoporosis is a condition where bones become weak and brittle due to a decrease in bone density. This makes them more prone to fractures, it most common in older adults, particularly in women, early menopause, smoking, diet low in calcium, excessive caffeine/ alcohol consumption , due to the decrease in estrogen levels which helps maintain bone density.
68. What is skin composed of? What type of epithelium?
Skin is composed of the epidermis (made of stratified squamous epithelium), dermis (connective tissue), and hypodermis (fat and connective tissue)
69. What are the 3 major layers of the integumentary system?
1-Epidermis
2-Dermis
3-Subcutaneous layer (hypodermis)
*70. What are some of the major functions of the integumentary system?
- protects body from physical trauma, invasion of pathogens and keeps water out
-Helps regulate body temp
-Allows awareness of our surroundings thru sensory receptors
-Synthesizes chemicals such as melanin & Vitamin D
Oxygen always forms 2 bonds
Hydrogen always forms 1 bond
Glucose is a Monosaccharide simple sugar major fuel source for cells
Glucose- grains
Fructose- fruits
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