Results for "Hydrogen Bonds"

9 Hydrogen Bonds Make Water Amazing

9 Hydrogen Bonds Make Water Amazing

BIO104 Chapter 2.2-2.3 Covalent bonds, Hydrogen bonds, Molecules, Water

1.2 Intermolecular forces of attraction. Hydrogen bonds and biological meaning.

Hydrogen bonds

ENE-1.D = Describe the properties of enzymes. The structure of enzymes includes the active site that specifically interacts with substrate molecules For an enzyme-mediated chemical reaction to occur = the shape & charge of the substrate must be compatible with the active site of the enzyme ENE-1.E = Explain how enzymes affect the rate of biological reactions The structure and function of enzymes contribute to the regulation of biological processes Enzymes are biological catalysts that facilitate chemical reactions (speed up) in cells by lowering the activation energy ENE-1.F = Explain how changes to the structure of an enzyme may affect its function Change to the molecular structure of a component in an enzymatic system may result in a change of the function or efficiency of the system Denaturation of an enzyme occurs when the protein structure is disrupted → eliminating the ability to catalyze reactions Environmental temperatures & pH outside the optimal range for a given enzyme will cause changes to its structure → altering the efficiency with which it catalyzes reactions In some cases, enzyme denaturation is reversible → allowing the enzyme to regain activity ENE-1.G = Explain how the cellular environment affects enzyme activity Environmental pH can alter the efficiency of enzyme activity = including through disruption of hydrogen bonds that provide enzyme structure The relative concentrations of substrates & products determine how efficiently an enzymatic reaction proceeds Higher environmental temperatures increase the speed of movement of molecules in a solution → increasing the frequency of collisions between enzymes & substrates → therefore increasing the rate of reaction Competitive inhibitor molecules can bind reversibly or irreversibly to the active site of the enzyme Noncompetitive inhibitors can bind allosteric sites = changing the activity of the enzyme ENE-1.H = Describe the role of energy in living organisms All living systems require constant input of energy Life requires a highly ordered system & does not violate the second law of thermodynamics Energy input must exceed energy loss to maintain order & to power cellular processes Cellular processes that release energy may be coupled with cellular processes that require energy Loss of order or energy flow results in death Energy-related pathways in biological systems are sequential to allow for a more controlled & efficient transfer of energy A product of a reaction in a metabolic pathway is generally the reactant for the subsequent step in the pathway ENE-1.I = Describe the photosynthetic processes that allow organisms to capture & store energy Organisms capture & store energy for use in biological processes Photosynthesis captures energy from the sun & produces sugars Photosynthesis first evolved in prokaryotic organisms Scientific evidence supports the claim that prokaryotic (cyanobacterial) photosynthesis was responsible for the production of an oxygenated atmosphere Prokaryotic photosynthetic pathways were the foundation of eukaryotic photosynthesis The light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis in eukaryotes = involve a series of coordinated reaction pathways that capture energy present in light to yield ATP & NADPH (power the production of organic molecules) ENE-1.J = Explain how cells capture energy from light & transfer it to biological molecules for storage & use During photosynthesis = chlorophylls absorb energy from light = boosting electrons to a higher energy level in photosystems I & II Photosystems I & II are embedded in the internal membranes of chloroplasts & are connected by the transfer of higher energy electrons through an electron transport chain (ETC) When electrons are transferred between molecules in a sequence of reactions as they pass through the ETC = an electrochemical gradient of protons (hydrogen ions) is established across the internal membrane The formation of the proton gradient is linked to the synthesis of ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate via ATP synthase The energy captured in the light reactions & transferred to ATP + NADPH = powers the production of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide in the Calvin cycle (which occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast) ENE-1.K = Describe the processes that allow organisms to use energy stored in biological macromolecules Fermentation & cellular respiration = use energy from biological macromolecules to produce ATP Respiration & fermentation = characteristic of all forms of life Cellular respiration in eukaryotes = involves a series of coordinated enzyme-catalyzed reactions that capture energy from biological macromolecules The electron transport chain = transfers energy from electrons in a series of coupled reactions that establish an electrochemical gradient across membranes Electron transport chain reactions = occur in chloroplasts / mitochondria / prokaryotic plasma membranes In cellular respiration = electrons delivered by NADH & FADH2 = passed to a series of electron acceptors (as they move toward the terminal electron acceptor = oxygen) In photosynthesis = the terminal electron acceptor is NADP+ Aerobic prokaryotes = use oxygen as a terminal electron acceptor anaerobic prokaryotes = use other molecules The transfer of electrons = accompanied by the formation of a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane / the internal membrane of chloroplasts (with the membrane(s) separating a region of high proton concentration from a region of low proton concentration In prokaryotes = the passage of electrons is accompanied by the movement of protons across the plasma membrane. The flow of protons back through membrane-bound ATP synthase by chemiosmosis drives the formation of ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate known as oxidative phosphorylation in cellular respiration photophosphorylation in photosynthesis In cellular respiration = decoupling oxidative phosphorylation from electron transport generates heat This heat can be used by endothermic organisms to regulate body temperature ENE-1.L = Explain how cells obtain energy from biological macromolecules in order to power cellular functions Glycolysis = a biochemical pathway that releases energy in glucose to form ATP from ADP & inorganic phosphate / NADH from NAD+ /pyruvate Pyruvate = transported from the cytosol to the mitochondrion = where further oxidation occurs In the Krebs cycle = carbon dioxide is released from organic intermediates = ATP is synthesized from ADP + inorganic phosphate & electrons are transferred to the coenzymes NADH + FADH2 Electrons extracted in glycolysis & Krebs cycle reactions = transferred by NADH & FADH2 to the electron transport chain in the inner mitochondrial membranE When electrons are transferred between molecules in a sequence of reactions as they pass through the ETC = an electrochemical gradient of protons (hydrogen ions) across the inner mitochondrial membrane is established Fermentation allows glycolysis to proceed in the absence of oxygen & produces organic molecules (including alcohol & lactic acid = as waste products) The conversion of ATP to ADP = releases energy = which is used to power many metabolic processes SYI-3.A = Explain the connection between variation in the number & types of molecules within cells to the ability of the organism to survive and/or reproduce in different environments. Variation at the molecular level = provides organisms with the ability to respond to a variety of environmental stimuli Variation in the number & types of molecules within cells provides organisms a greater ability to survive and/or reproduce in different environments Kk

Hydrogen bonds with water

Introduction, Scope of Biochemistry, Water, Hydrogen Bonds, Buffers

Chapter Summary 2.1 The Importance of Chemistry in Anatomy and Physiology Chemicals are all around us. Household products such as soap and shampoo as well as food and medicine are comprised of chemicals. The human body is also made of chemicals. We begin our examination of anatomy and physiology with a study of basic chemistry. 2.2 Fundamentals of Chemistry Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. 1. Elements and atoms a. Naturally occurring matter on Earth is composed of ninety-two elements. b. Elements usually combine to form compounds. c. Elements are composed of atoms. d. Atoms of different elements vary in size, weight, and ways of interacting. 2. Atomic structure a. An atom consists of electrons surrounding a nucleus, which has protons and neutrons. The exception is hydrogen, which has only a proton in its nucleus. b. Electrons are negatively charged, protons positively charged, and neutrons uncharged. c. A complete atom is electrically neutral. d. The atomic number of an element is equal to the number of protons in each atom. 3. Isotopes a. Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic number but different mass numbers (due to differing numbers of neutrons). The atomic weight of an element is the average of the mass numbers of its various isotopes. b. All the isotopes of an element react chemically in the same manner. c. Some isotopes are radioactive and release atomic radiation. 4. Molecules and compounds a. Two or more atoms may combine to form a molecule. b. A molecular formula represents the numbers and types of atoms in a molecule. c. If atoms of the same element combine, they produce molecules of that element. d. If atoms of different elements combine, they form molecules called compounds. 2.3 Bonding of Atoms When atoms form links called bonds, they gain, lose, or share electrons. Electrons occupy space in areas called electron shells that encircle an atomic nucleus. Atoms with completely filled outer shells are inert, whereas atoms with incompletely filled outer shells gain, lose, or share electrons and thus become stable. 1. Ionic bonds a. Atoms that lose electrons become positively charged (cations); atoms that gain electrons become negatively charged (anions). b. Ions with opposite charges attract and join by ionic bonds. 2. Atoms that share electrons join by covalent bonds. a. Nonpolar molecules result from an equal sharing of electrons. b. Polar molecules result from an unequal sharing of electrons. c. Hydrogen bonds may form within and between polar molecules. 3. Chemical reactions a. In a chemical reaction, bonds between atoms, ions, or molecules break or form. Starting materials are called reactants; the resulting atoms or molecules are called products. b. Three types of chemical reactions are synthesis, in which large molecules build up from smaller ones; decomposition, in which molecules break down; and exchange reactions, in which parts of two different molecules trade positions. c. Many reactions are reversible. The direction of a reaction depends upon the proportion of reactants and products and the energy available. d. Catalysts (enzymes) influence the rate (not the direction) of the reaction. 2.4 Electrolytes, Acids and Bases, and Salts Compounds that ionize in water are electrolytes. 1. Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions are acids, and those that release hydroxide or other ions that react with hydrogen ions are bases. a. Acids and bases react to form water and electrolytes called salts. 2. Acid and base concentrations a. pH represents the concentration of hydrogen ions (H+) and hydroxide ions (OH−) in a solution. b. A solution with equal numbers of H+ and OH− is neutral and has a pH of 7.0; a solution with more H+ than OH− is acidic (pH less than 7.0); a solution with fewer H+ than OH− is basic (pH greater than 7.0). c. A tenfold difference in hydrogen ion concentration separates each whole number in the pH scale. d. Buffers are chemicals that resist pH change. 2.5 Chemical Constituents of Cells Molecules containing carbon and hydrogen atoms are organic and are usually nonelectrolytes; other molecules are inorganic and are usually electrolytes. 1. Inorganic substances a. Water is the most abundant compound in the body. Many chemical reactions take place in water. Water transports chemicals and heat and helps release excess body heat. b. Oxygen releases energy for metabolic activities from glucose and other molecules. c. Carbon dioxide is produced when certain metabolic processes release energy. d. Inorganic salts provide ions needed in a variety of metabolic processes. e. Electrolytes must be present in certain concentrations inside and outside of cells. 2. Organic substances a. Carbohydrates provide much of the energy cells require and are built of simple sugar molecules. b. Lipids, such as triglycerides (fats), phospholipids, and steroids, supply energy and are used to build cell parts. 1) The building blocks of triglycerides are glycerol and three fatty acids. 2) The building blocks of phospholipids are glycerol, two fatty acids, and a phosphate group. 3) Steroids include rings of carbon atoms and are synthesized in the body from cholesterol. c. Proteins serve as structural materials, energy sources, hormones, cell surface receptors, antibodies, and enzymes that speed chemical reactions without being consumed. 1) The building blocks of proteins are amino acids. 2) Proteins vary in the numbers and types of their constituent amino acids; the sequences of these amino acids; and their three-dimensional structures, or conformations. 3) Primary structure is the amino acid sequence. Secondary structure comes from attractions between amino acids that are close together in the primary structure. Tertiary structure reflects attractions of far-apart amino acids and folds the molecule. The amino acid sequence determines the protein’s conformation. 4) The protein’s conformation determines its function. 5) Exposure to excessive heat, radiation, electricity, or certain chemicals can denature proteins. d. Nucleic acids constitute genes, the instructions that control cell activities, and direct protein synthesis. 1) The two types are RNA and DNA. 2) Nucleic acid building blocks are nucleotides. 3) DNA molecules store information that cell parts use to construct specific proteins. 4) RNA molecules help synthesize proteins. 5) DNA molecules are replicated, and an exact copy of the original cell’s DNA is passed to each of the newly formed cells resulting from cell division.

3: Chemical basis of life

Lecture 03 Properties of H20, Hydrogen Bonds, Acids and Bases

1.4 Hydrogen bonds are very common in biological macromolecules

1.3 Macro Intro Breaking a bond = hydrolysis Build/make a bond = remove water, dehydration synthesis 1.4 Macros Nucleic Acids DNA and RNA Made from nucleotides A, T, C, G, U Proteins Amino acids Polypeptide To make it into a protein you need to fold and modify Carbs Monosaccharides Ex. glucose Polysaccharides Ex. starch, cellulose, glycogen, chitin Lipids nonpolar Ex. phospholipids Saturated (butter) vs unsaturated (oil) 1.5 Macros structure + function Uses covalent bonds between nucleotides Main structure want it to be covalent bond so its strong Bases use hydrogen bonds DNA is antiparallel, equally spaced read in opposite directions Protein Primary - Amino acids Secondary - Pleats and coils (hydrogen bonding) Tertiary - Interactions between the R-groups (unique shapes) Quaternary - 2 or more chains (any bond) Carbs Chains of sugars using covalent bonds 1.6 Nucleic Acids DNA Deoxyribose sugar T Double stranded RNA Ribose sugar U Single stranded Common Both use nucleotides A, G, C U2 Cells Organelles Ribosomes = protein synthesis Found on rough ER or free Show common ancestry Endoplasmic Reticulum Rough = ribosomes Smooth = makes lipids, detox Golgi complex Protein trafficking Packaging and transport of proteins mitochondria Site of cellular respiration, ATP production Double membrane Own DNA circular DNA Chloroplast Site of photosynthesis Own circular DNA Lysosome Hydrolytic enzymes Apoptosis Vacuole Large in plants Small in animal cells 2.3 Cell Size Small cells Inc surface area to volume ratio More efficient Better for transportation, elimination of waste, heat, exchanges, etc 2.4 Plasma Membrane Small and nonpolar can pass through easily (oxygen and carbon dioxide) 2.5 Membrane Permeability Selectively permeable Transport proteins needed for larger polar molecules Cell wall - plants, fungi, and prokaryotes Provides extra support and protection 2.6 Transport Passive transport (high to low) Does Not require any energy Diffusion Osmosis Facilitated diffusion (uses proteins) Active transport (low to high) Require energy Exocytosis Moving things in or out Endocytosis 2.7 Facilitated diffusion Uses integral proteins Ex. aquaporins, ion channels, neurons Proteins also used for active transport 3.6 Cellular Respiration Glycolysis Within the cytoplasm Evidence of common ancestry because all organisms go through glycolysis Glucose to 2 pyruvates Energy investment phase and energy payoff phase Get pyruvate, ATP, and NADH Fermentation (ONLY IF NO OXYGEN) To reset everything Takes NADH and turns it back to NAD+ to keep running glycolysis Grooming Phase Modify and turn it into Acetyl CoA Kreb Cycle With in the matrix Making electron carriers (NADH and FADH2) Inner mitochondrial membrane Where the electron transport chain takes place 3.7 Fitness Max offspring Variation can increase fitness Unit 4 Cell Communications 4.1 Signal Transduction Pathway Autocrine (signal yourself) Paracrine (next to you) Endocrine (far from you) 4.2 Signal Transduction Pathway intro Reception → transduction → response Reception: ligand attacks to the receptor The process by which a cell detects a signal in the environment. Ex. ligand binds to G protein which activates Transduction: phosphorylation cascade and amplifies signal The process of activating a series of proteins inside the cell from the cell membrane. Response: The change in behavior that occurs in the cell as a result of the signal. Second messenger - first is ligand, second messenger is for amplification (cAMP - each can have their own phosphorylation cascades) 4.3 STP Responses Turn gene off/on Apoptosis Cell growth start/stop 4.4 changes to STP Mutations (respond too much or too little to the signal molecule attacking) Chemical can release that can interfere with your STP resulting with death 4,5 Feedback Respond to changes (homeostasis) Negative (reverse change) Positive (increasing the change) 4.6 / 4.7 Cell Cycle/ Regulation G1 - growth G1 checkpoint (determine if you go to S phase or to G0 non dividing state) S - DNA replication G2 - organelle replication and growth G2 checkpoint - make sure the cell is ready for division M phase - Mitosis PMAT Prophase - nucleus disappears Metaphase - lined up at the equator Anaphase - replicated chromosomes are split Telophase - move to opposite ends M-phase checkpoint - checks to make sure division is correct Cytokinesis - final split into 2 Cyclin increases during S and peaks at M Cdk binds with cyclin to produce mpf Level of cyclins lets cell know where it’s supposed to be Tells your cell you are at your full maturity ready to produce Unit 5 Heredity 5.1 / 5.2 Meiosis Increases genetic variation Crossing over (Prophase 1) Reduction division haploid (half the amount of genetic information) Random fertilization Nondisjunction (meiosis 1 all 4 cells are irregular / meiosis 2 half the cells are irregular) Independent Assortment Increases genetic diversity 5.3 Mendelian Genetics A = dominant allele a = recessive allele Genotype - combination of letters (AA, Aa, aa) Phenotype = looks Law of Segregation - Aa → A / a Law of Independent Assortment (Aa Bb → AB, Ab, aB, ab) Sex Linked Located on a sex chromosome Usually X Sex linked recessive is more common in males because they only have one X Sex linked dominant both can inherit easily Incomplete dominance - blending Codominance - both alleles expressed 5.5 Environmental Effects Ex. weather, pH of soil 5.6 Chromosomal Inheritance Mutation → inherited Some have no effect, negative effect, neutral effect, 6.1 Gene Expression and Regulation 6.1 DNA Double stranded Deoxyribose T RNA Ribose Single stranded U 6.2 Replication (S-Phase) 5’ → 3’ Ligase - binds the new bases together Helicase - unwinds the DNA DNA poly - put down the new bases Primase - makes primer Topoisomerase - stops DNA from getting overwind Leading - able to all go in one go Lagging - many primers and okazaki fragments 6.3 Transcription and Processing Nucleus RNA poly makes primary transcript (pre mRNA) from DNA Template strand is the one the DNA is using to build Non template strand one not being used RNA processing Introns are removed Exons are put together Add cap and tail for protection Alternative splicing 6.4 Translation Ribosome Reverse Transcriptase retroviruses Ex. HIV RNA genomes use reverse transcriptase to make DNA from RNA 6.5 Regulation of Gene Expression Signal to unpack the gene Transcribed (transcription factors differ by cells and allows different gens to turn on) RNA editing Translation Polypeptide folding All need to go correctly or else the gene wont be expressed Acetylation of histones - adding acetyl group causes the DNA to be more loose making it easier to read Methylation of histones - adding methyl groups to the DNA causes it to be tighter and harder to read Enhancers - enhances transcription and causes it to occur more often Activators - dont bind to RNA poly it binds to the enhancer Depends of which genes and stage of development Epigenetics - one gene controls another gene Inducible Operon - usually off Repressor is bound to operon and lactose inactivates Repressible Operon - usually on Repressor is usually inactive, trp activates repressor 6.6 Gene Expression and Cell Specialization Promoter region (TATA box) alerts RNA poly that its a promoter region and where to attach Negative regulation - blocks promoter so RNA poly cant attach small RNA - can turn certain genes off 6.7 Mutations Increase normal gene function Decrease normal gene function Can lead to new phenotypes Cancer can be due to overproduction of growth factors, hyperactive proteins (requires many mutations Can have positive, negative, or no effect Causes of mutation Exposures Random Errors in DNA replication Increase or decrease in chromosome number Prokaryotes Transformation - pick up random DNA Transduction - virus accidentally is filled with bacterial DNA Conjunction - mating bridge/sex pilus 6.8 Biotechnology Electrophoresis - separates DNA by charge and size PCR - artificial DNA replication, increases amount of DNA sample Transformation - you make the bacteria take up a gene you're interested in Unit 7 7.1 Natural Selection natural / selective pressures decide survival Reproductive fitness (max out your kids) 7.2 Natural Selection Acts on phenotypes which can affect genotype Preferring brown fur over white decreases white fur allele frequency Environmental changes → selective pressures 7.3 Artificial Selection Humans select (ex. Dogs, livestock, etc) Convergent evolution - not closely related but because of similar environments you look alike Divergent - had a recent common ancestor but you started becoming separate Niche partitioning - choosing separate niches so you dont have to compete with others 7.4 Population Genetics Mutation - variety and evolution Genetic drift - random event that alters the gene pool Bottleneck effect - an event causes a large part of the population to die off and the remaining left repopulate with a different gene pool Founder effect - the og are there but some leave/get separated 7.5 Hardy Weinburg Large population No natural selection Random mating No mutation No gene flow P+q = 1 p2 + 2pq +q2 = 1 (AA) + (Aa) + (aa) = 1 7.6 Evidence of Evolution Fossils DNA (molecular homologies) Anatomy Vestigial structure (things we dont need anymore) (evidence of common ancestry) Biogeography (species are found all around the world)(kangaroos, genetic code, glycolysis) 7.7 Common Ancestry All Eukaryotes Membrane bound organelles Linear DNA and chromosomes Genes with introns 7.8 Continuing Evolution Genomic changes over time Continuous changes in fossils Evolution of antibiotic resistance Disease evolution 7.9 Phylogeny / Cladistics Phylogeny = included time Cladograms = just traits Shared characters Derived characters Molecular (DNA, proteins, amino acids) are more accurate than characteristics Parsimony - the one with the fewer events on it, the frewer you have the more likely it is 7.10 Speciesation Pre-zygotic Mechanical - parts dont match Gametic - egg doesnt match Geographical - dont live in the same place Temporal - ready to mate at different times Behavioral - specific type of mating display is not there Post-zygotic Hybrid sterility - the hybrid made is healthy but they cannot have children (mule) Hybrid breakdowns - the hybirds are okay but after a generation or two they cannot produce anymore Hybrid inviability - hybrid is produced but cannot survive long enough to reproduce Sympatric New species arrises in the original location Gradualism - slow steady evolution Allopstric Separation leads to speciation Punctuated - long periods of evolution with no change then rapid change 7.11 Extinction Can be natural or human caused If something goes extinct it can open up opprotunities for other species 7.12 Variation Genetic diversity Diversity of the ecosystem = inc biodiversity Less likey to be 7.13 Origins of Life on Earth No oxygen on earth 4.6 billion No ozone layer Tons of UV radiation High ocean levels Vooacanic eruptions RNA was the first genetic material DNA is dependant of RNA in

Covalent Bonds, Hydrogen Bonds and IMF

B1.2.9 Dependence of tertiary structure on hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, disulfide covalent bonds and hydrophobic interactions

A 1.1.2 - Hydrogen Bonds

Chapter 3 - Water and Hydrogen Bonds

Dependant/ independent variables Independent- The variable being manipulated Dependant- The observed result of the independent variable being manipulated 3 Domains Prokaryotes, Eukaryotes, Archae 3 Types of Relationships Commensalism Parasitism Mutualism Scientific Hypothesis an idea that proposes a tentative explanation about a phenomenon or a narrow set of phenomena observed in the natural world. Difference between Archea/ Bacteria Archaea consists of three RNA whereas bacteria consists of single RNA. Quantitative/ Qualitative data Quantitative data is numbers-based, countable, or measurable Qualitative data is interpretation-based, descriptive, and related to language. Homeostasis Balance of the body Controlled Experiment In a controlled experiment, all extraneous variables are held constant so that they can't influence the results. Difference between Hydrophobic/ Hydrophilic Any substance that repels water Any substance that has an affinity for water Protons/ electrons/ neutron Protons- a subatomic particle with a positive electric charge Electrons- a negatively charged subatomic particle that can be either bound to an atom or free (not bound). Neutron- an uncharged atomic particle that has a mass nearly equal to that of the proton and is present in all known atomic nuclei except the hydrogen nucleus What a cation/ Anion Cations are ions that are positively charged. Anions are ions that are negatively charged. Isomers Chemical compounds that have identical chemical formulae but differ in properties and the arrangement of atoms in the molecule Picture of elements/ what's on valence electrons Valence electrons have negatively charged particles How many valence electrons are in shells 8 electrons What are examples of trace elements? zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), selenium (Se), chromium (Cr), cobalt (Co), iodine (I), manganese (Mn), and molybdenum (Mo). Different types of Bonds Covalent Bonds- one or more electrons shared between atoms Non-polar covalent: electrons are shared equally between nuclei Polar covalent- electrons shared equally between the nuclei Ionic Bonds- one or more electrons transformed from one to another Hydrogen Bonds- a weak bond between a partially positive hydrogen atom and a partially negative oxygen atom Cohesion/ Adhesion Cohesion- the attraction of molecules for other molecules of the same kind Adhesion- the sticking of molecules or surfaces to each other Radioactive Isotopes, Why are they used Radioisotopes are an essential part of medical diagnostic procedures. In combination with imaging devices that register the gamma rays emitted from within, they can be used for imaging to study the dynamic processes taking place in various parts of the body. Why is Water Important Water's role as a solvent helps cells transport and use substances like oxygen or nutrients. Properties of Water Water is polar Water is a solvent Water is less dense as a solid than a liquid What are reactions a process that converts one or more substances to another substance. .Why are trace elements important? function primarily as catalysts in enzyme systems What are Buffers Substances in the cells that help maintain a relatively stable pH What is the pH scale? a measure of how acidic/basic water is Find the molecular mass of something Atomic weight on the periodic table is equal to moles #/1m = x/ desired # moles Functional groups The shape of molecules directly affects their function Types of atoms, bonds A specific arrangement of atoms Difference between Hydraullisis/ Dehydration Dehydration- removes a water molecule from a new bond Hydrolysis- add a water molecule, breaking a bond Differentiate between Polymers/ Monomers A monomer is a molecule with low molecular weight that can combine with others of the same kind to form a chemical compound known as a polymer Different types of Proteins/ enzymes antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins Difference between plants and animals Plants are not mobile and animals are Cell membrane components Phospholipids, cholesterol, glycolipids, lipid bilayer, membrane proteins

ACIDS, BASES, ReDox Reaction, Capillary Action, Bond Capacities, covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds

(Draft) ACIDS, BASES, ReDox Reaction, Capillary Action, Bond Capacities, covalent bonds, ionic bonds, hydrogen bonds