Beehive. M1: School things. Colours. Toys

CH 10: How Costs behave ??

bexhill fieldwork trip

Beehive. Module 4. Clothes

Brain and behave 4

PSYCHOLOGY TEST #1 — COMPLETE STUDY NOTES Test Format (40 Marks) Part A: Fill in the Blank — 10 marks (Knowledge) Part B: Identification — 10 marks (Inquiry) Part C: Short Answer — 10 marks (Communication) Part D: Theory Application — 10 marks (Application) 1. THE PHYSICAL HUMAN BRAIN Frontal Lobe Functions: Controls higher thinking skills, decision-making, problem-solving, planning, attention, intelligence, personality, emotions and voluntary movements. Associated disorders: ADHD, schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Damage can cause: Paralysis, mood changes, personality changes, difficulty speaking, loss of spontaneity and unusual social behaviour. Remember: Frontal = Thinking and personality. Parietal Lobe Functions: Processes sensory information, especially touch. Helps with spatial awareness, balance, recognizing objects and understanding surroundings. Associated disorders: Alzheimer's disease, ADHD and schizophrenia. Damage can cause: Sensory difficulties, disorientation, poor coordination and difficulty recognizing or locating objects and body parts. Remember: Parietal = Touch and surroundings. Occipital Lobe Functions: Processes visual information, including colours, shapes, movement and objects. Responsible for vision. Associated disorders: Schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism and depression. Damage can cause: Blindness, visual hallucinations and difficulty seeing colours or movement. Remember: Occipital = Vision and seeing. Temporal Lobe Functions: Responsible for hearing, recognizing faces and objects, understanding language, learning, memory and emotions. Associated disorders: Schizophrenia, Alzheimer's disease and autism. Damage can cause: Memory loss, speech difficulties, difficulty understanding language, difficulty recognizing faces and objects, and changes in behaviour. Remember: Temporal = Hearing and memory. Cerebellum Functions: Controls balance, posture, coordination, voluntary movements, reflexes, motor skills and timing. Associated disorders: Autism, schizophrenia and dyslexia. Damage can cause: Poor coordination, tremors, dizziness, difficulty walking and slurred speech. Remember: Cerebellum = Balance and coordination. Brain Stem Functions: Controls automatic body functions such as breathing, heart rate, blood pressure and digestion. Also helps regulate sleep, alertness and balance. Associated disorders: Autism and sleep disorders such as insomnia. Damage can cause: Organ problems, sleep difficulties, balance problems and serious problems with automatic body functions. Remember: Brain Stem = Keeps you alive. Quick Memorization: Frontal = Thinking. Parietal = Touch. Occipital = Vision. Temporal = Hearing and memory. Cerebellum = Balance. Brain Stem = Automatic functions. 2. SIGMUND FREUD Who was Sigmund Freud? Austrian neurologist and psychologist. Founder of psychoanalysis. Believed the unconscious mind strongly influences human behaviour. Believed childhood experiences help shape personality. Freud's 7 Main Theories 1. Psychoanalysis A method of studying and understanding the unconscious mind. Freud believed hidden thoughts, feelings and childhood experiences influence behaviour. Used therapy to help people understand their unconscious thoughts. Example: Someone may have a fear without understanding where it originally came from. 2. Three-Part Psyche Freud believed personality was made up of three parts: the Id, Ego and Superego. Id Represents biological wants and desires. Follows the pleasure principle. Wants immediate satisfaction without thinking about consequences. Example: Eating all the cookies because you want them. Remember: Id = Wants. Ego Balances the Id and Superego. Follows the reality principle. Makes realistic decisions and considers consequences. Example: Deciding to eat one cookie instead of all of them. Remember: Ego = Reality. Superego Represents your conscience. Tells you what is right and wrong. Develops through experiences, rules and values. Example: Knowing you shouldn't take someone else's cookies. Remember: Superego = Morals. 3. Oedipus Complex Freud believed young children experience unconscious feelings of attachment toward the parent of the opposite sex and rivalry toward the same-sex parent. Named after the Greek character Oedipus, who unknowingly killed his father and married his mother. Remember: Opposite-sex parent = Attachment; same-sex parent = Rivalry. 4. Sexual Desires (Libido) Freud believed sexual energy, called libido, influences human personality and behaviour. He believed frustration of desires could affect mental health. The term Freudian slip comes from his ideas about unconscious thoughts accidentally appearing in speech. Example: Accidentally saying what you were actually thinking instead of what you meant to say. 5. Examination of Dreams Freud believed dreams were a window into the unconscious mind. He thought dreams revealed hidden thoughts, feelings and desires. Example: A dream might represent a hidden fear or worry. 6. Stages of Development Freud believed personality develops through five stages. Each stage focuses on a different area of pleasure. Oral Stage (0–18 months): Pleasure comes from the mouth, such as sucking and feeding. Anal Stage (18 months–3 years): Focuses on toilet training and control. Phallic Stage (3–6 years): Focuses on the body and awareness of gender differences. Latency Stage (6–puberty): Sexual urges are less noticeable. Children focus more on friendships, school and learning. Genital Stage (puberty–adulthood): Focuses on mature relationships and sexual interests. Remember the order: Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital. 7. Defence Mechanisms Freud believed the mind uses defence mechanisms to protect itself from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings. They happen unconsciously. Important examples: Denial: Refusing to accept reality. Example: Saying you didn't fail a test when you did. Repression: Pushing upsetting memories out of awareness. Projection: Blaming others for your own feelings. Example: Calling someone jealous when you are jealous. Displacement: Taking your feelings out on someone else. Example: Being upset at school and snapping at a family member. Rationalization: Making excuses for behaviour. Example: Saying a test was unfair because you didn't study. How Freud Applies to Psychology Helps explain how the unconscious mind influences behaviour. Helps explain how childhood experiences affect personality. Studies how dreams and hidden feelings may affect people. Explains how defence mechanisms protect people from uncomfortable emotions. Influenced the development of psychotherapy and talk therapy. 3. CONDITIONING Conditioning is a type of learning where behaviour changes through experiences and associations. There are two main types: Classical and Operant Conditioning. A. Classical Conditioning Learning through association. Happens when someone connects two stimuli. A person learns to associate something with a natural response. The response eventually becomes automatic. Example: Pavlov's Dogs Pavlov rang a bell before giving dogs food. Food naturally caused the dogs to salivate. Eventually, the dogs started salivating just from hearing the bell. Four Important Terms: US (Unconditioned Stimulus): Something that naturally causes a reaction. UR (Unconditioned Response): The natural reaction to the stimulus. CS (Conditioned Stimulus): Something originally neutral that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus. CR (Conditioned Response): The learned reaction to the conditioned stimulus. Example from your notes: Toilet and Shower Every time someone flushes a toilet, the shower becomes very hot. Eventually, the person jumps back just from hearing the toilet flush. US: Hot water. UR: Jumping back. CS: Toilet flushing. CR: Jumping back when hearing the toilet flush. Remember: Classical = Association. B. Operant Conditioning Learning through rewards and punishments. Behaviour changes depending on its consequences. People learn which behaviours lead to positive or negative outcomes. Usually involves voluntary behaviours. Four Types of Operant Conditioning: 1. Positive Reinforcement Adding something pleasant to increase a behaviour. Example: Getting a reward for good grades. 2. Negative Reinforcement Removing something unpleasant to increase a behaviour. Example: Homework stops once you finish your chores. 3. Positive Punishment Adding something unpleasant to decrease a behaviour. Example: Getting extra chores for breaking a rule. 4. Negative Punishment Removing something pleasant to decrease a behaviour. Example: Losing phone privileges for breaking a rule. Important to Remember: Positive = Adding something. Negative = Removing something. Reinforcement = Increases behaviour. Punishment = Decreases behaviour. Positive does NOT mean good, and negative does NOT mean bad. Classical vs. Operant Conditioning Classical = Learning through association. Operant = Learning through consequences. Classical = Usually automatic responses. Operant = Usually voluntary behaviours. Classical example = Pavlov's dogs. Operant example = Getting rewarded for good grades. 4. COGNITIVE BIAS What is Cognitive Bias? The way we personally see and interpret the world. Everyone processes information differently. Our perceptions can influence our behaviour and decisions. Many biases happen unconsciously, without us realizing. Example: Two people experience the same situation but remember and interpret it differently. Confirmation Bias The tendency to look for and remember information that supports what you already believe. People often ignore information that goes against their beliefs. Example: You believe someone is rude, so you only notice when they act rude and ignore when they are nice. Tests That Measure Cognitive Bias 1. Rorschach Inkblot Test People look at inkblots and explain what they see. Their interpretations are recorded and analyzed. Remember: Inkblots = What do you see? 2. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) People look at a series of pictures and create stories about them. The stories are analyzed to understand their thoughts and feelings. Remember: Pictures = Tell a story. 3. Word Association Test People are given words and respond with the first word that comes to mind. Responses can be analyzed to explore subconscious thoughts. Remember: Words = First thing that comes to mind. 4. Graphology The study of handwriting and how it may relate to personality traits. Remember: Graphology = Handwriting. 5. ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL STUDIES Ethics are rules that protect people who participate in psychological research. Five Ethical Principles 1. Minimizing Harm - Participants should not experience unnecessary physical or emotional harm. 2. Informed Consent - Participants must understand the study and agree to participate. 3. Confidentiality and Anonymity - Personal information and identities must be protected. 4. Avoiding Deception - Researchers should not mislead participants unnecessarily. 5. Right to Withdraw - Participants can leave the study at any time without being forced to stay. Remember: Harm, Consent, Privacy, Honesty, Withdraw. Controversial Experiments 1. Milgram Obedience Study (1963) Researcher: Stanley Milgram. Purpose: To investigate how far people would obey authority, even when it went against their conscience. What happened? Participants were told they were taking part in a learning experiment. They were assigned the role of the teacher. They were instructed to give increasing electric shocks to a learner for incorrect answers. The learner was actually an actor, and the shocks were fake. Many participants continued because an authority figure told them to. Main takeaway: - People may obey authority even when they believe their actions are wrong. Ethical issues: - Deception and psychological stress. 2. Stanford Prison Experiment (1971) Researcher: Philip Zimbardo. Purpose: To investigate how people behave when placed in positions of power or powerless situations. What happened? Participants were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guards. The experiment was designed to imitate a prison. Some guards began treating prisoners unfairly. The experiment became harmful and was stopped early. Main takeaway: - Situations and social roles can influence human behaviour. Ethical issues: - Psychological harm, lack of protection and insufficient oversight. Difference Between the Two Experiments Milgram = Obedience to authority. Stanford = Power and social roles. Milgram = Stanley Milgram, 1963. Stanford = Philip Zimbardo, 1971. 6. ALFRED ADLER AND CARL JUNG Both were psychologists who studied personality. They were originally influenced by Freud but disagreed with some of his ideas. A. Alfred Adler Who Was Alfred Adler? Austrian psychologist born in 1870. Founder of Individual Psychology. Believed people are motivated by the desire to improve themselves and overcome feelings of inferiority. 1. Inferiority Complex Adler believed people naturally experience feelings of inferiority or not being good enough. People try to overcome these feelings through self-improvement and achievement. Example: Someone who struggles in school works harder to improve their grades. 2. Compensation Trying to overcome a weakness by improving another area of life. Example: Someone who struggles with sports focuses on becoming better at music. 3. Napoleon Complex Describes someone who overcompensates because they feel inferior due to a perceived disadvantage. Often associated with people who are shorter in height. Example: Someone acts overly aggressive to prove themselves. 4. Fictional Finalism (Fictional Story) Adler believed people create an idea or goal about who they want to become at a young age. This imagined goal influences their decisions and behaviour throughout life. Example: A child believes they will become a doctor and makes decisions based on that goal. 5. Birth Order Adler believed birth order could influence personality and behaviour. Being the oldest, middle or youngest child may affect how someone develops. 6. Three Major Life Tasks Occupational Tasks: Career, education and work. Societal Tasks: Friendships and social connections. Love Tasks: Relationships, marriage and family. Remember: Work, Friends, Love. B. Carl Jung Who Was Carl Jung? Swiss psychologist born in 1875. Originally influenced by Freud. Agreed that the unconscious mind influences behaviour. Disagreed with Freud's strong focus on sexuality. Often included spirituality and the soul in his psychological theories. 1. Collective Unconscious Jung believed all humans share a deeper unconscious mind. It contains universal symbols and patterns passed down through generations. These universal patterns are called archetypes. Example: Different cultures have similar ideas about heroes, mothers and villains. 2. Introvert vs. Extrovert - Jung developed a personality theory based on where people direct their mental energy. Introverts: Focus their energy inward toward themselves. Prefer reflecting on their own thoughts and feelings. Draw energy from their inner world. Extroverts: Focus their energy outward toward people and their surroundings. Direct their attention toward the outside world. Important: Introvert does not automatically mean shy, and extrovert does not simply mean outgoing. 3. Psychological Balance Jung believed people need balance between opposite personality traits. Understanding different sides of your personality helps with personal development and mental health. Difference Between Freud, Adler and Jung Freud = Unconscious mind, childhood experiences and sexual energy. Adler = Inferiority, compensation and self-improvement. Jung = Collective unconscious, archetypes and introversion/extroversion. MOST IMPORTANT THINGS TO MEMORIZE If you are short on time, make sure you know these: Brain Parts Frontal = Thinking. Parietal = Touch. Occipital = Vision. Temporal = Hearing and memory. Cerebellum = Balance. Brain Stem = Automatic functions. Freud Id = Wants. Ego = Reality. Superego = Morals. Oral → Anal → Phallic → Latency → Genital. Defence mechanisms = Protect the mind from uncomfortable thoughts and feelings. Conditioning Classical = Association. Operant = Consequences. Positive = Add. Negative = Remove. Reinforcement = Increase behaviour. Punishment = Decrease behaviour. Cognitive Bias Confirmation bias = Looking for information that supports your beliefs. Rorschach = Inkblots. TAT = Pictures and stories. Word Association = Words. Graphology = Handwriting. Ethics Minimizing harm. Informed consent. Confidentiality and anonymity. Avoiding deception. Right to withdraw. Experiments Milgram = Obedience to authority. Stanford = Power and social roles. Adler Inferiority complex = Feeling inferior. Compensation = Overcoming weaknesses. Fictional finalism = Goals that guide behaviour. Three tasks = Occupational, societal and love. Jung Collective unconscious = Shared unconscious patterns. Archetypes = Universal symbols and characters. Introvert = Focuses inward. Extrovert = Focuses outward.

P1 CH2 how do costs behave

FAH313 - WEEK 5 - Zeus, Hera, and Gods Behaving Badly

UNIT 1. HELLO! NICE TO MEET YOU… a first name – ім’я a patronymic – по батькові a surname (last name, a family name) – прізвище a middle name – друге ім’я initials – ініціали a full name – повне ім’я by the name of = called – по імені to name after – назвати на честь a nickname – прізвисько to be nicknamed – мати прізвисько a pet name – зменьшувально-пестливе ім’я a namesake – тезка a name day – іменини a maiden name – дівоче прізвище to change one’s name to – змінити ім’я на a false / real name – вигадане/ справжнє ім’я a pseudonym, a pen name – псевдонім to know smb under the name of – знати когось під ім’ям to know smb only by (first) name – знати когось тількипо імені a newborn – новонарождений a baby – немовля a toddler – дитина, яка починає ходити a child, a kid – дитина at one’s mother’s knee = on one’s mother’s lap – на рукаху мами (=в ранньому дитинстві) childhood – дитинство a preschooler – дошкільник a teenager – підліток to be in one’s teens – бути у віці від 13 до 19 to be under age – бути неповнолітнім a youth, an adolescent = a young man – юнак, дівчина to be / come of age – бути/ досягати повноліття an adult, a grown up – дорослий middle-aged – середнього віку to be retired – бути на пенсії a pensioner – пенсіонер elderly – літній older generation – старше покоління an old man, woman – старий, старенька at the age of 24, aged 24 – у віці 24 to be the same age – бути однолітками to be under / about / over 20 –молодше / близько / старше20 to be in one’s early / mid / late twenties – бути у віці від 20 до 30 років (early – 20-23 роки, mid – 24-27 років, late – близько 30 років) to be long past 40 – далеко за 40 to turn 60 – виповнюватись/досягати 60 5 years younger / older than me – на п’ять років молодше/ старше мене twice as old as – у два рази старше marital status (single / married) – сімейний стан (неодружений, не заміжня / одружений, заміжня) sex (male / female) – пол (чоловічій / жіночий) Allow me to introduce Dr. Smith to you. – Дозволь меніпредставити тобі доктора Сміта. Let me introduce Mr. Brown. – Дозвольте меніпредставити містера Брауна. I have a great pleasure introducing… – Для меневеличезне задоволення представити… May I introduce Mr. Baker? – Чи можу я представитимістера Бэйкера? May I introduce myself? – Чи можу я представитися? a totem – тотем a milestone – етап to ward off – відображати, тримати когось на відстані medieval – середньовічний in reverse – в зворотньому порядку, навпаки an anagram – анаграма affection – прив’язаність   LEARN WHILE YOU ARE YOUNG   Students – учні: an applicant – кандидат a first-year student = freshman – першокурсник a second-year student = sophomore – другокурсник a senior – студент третього курсу an undergraduate student – студент останього курсу a graduate = a grand student – випускник a group monitor – староста групи a junior –студент курсу a post-graduate (student) – аспірант   University teachers – університетські викладачі: a dean – декан a deputy dean – заст. декана head of the department – завідувач кафедри an instructor = a university teacher = a lecturer – викладач a professor – професор a rector – ректор teaching staff = faculty – професорсько-викладацький склад a tutor – керівник гурту, репетитор a vice-rector – проректор   Ways of studying – шляхи навчання: to have a good ear for languages – мати здібності до мов to have a disappointing / good / poor academicperformance – мати розчаровуючу / гарну / погану успішність to have good / poor attendance – мати хорошу / погану відвідуваність to make progress in smth – робити успіхи в to master smth – засвоювати to neglect one’s studies – нехтувати навчанням to put things off (until later / next week) – відкладати щось (на пізніше / до наступного тижня) to miss / skip classes – пропускати заняття to play truant – прогулювати to fall behind a group – відстати від групи to catch up with the group / material – наздогнати групу/ матеріал to be absorbed by / with / in – бути чимось захопленим to do well in / be good at – добре встигати to meet the deadline – встигнути до останнього терміну to devote much / little time to studies – приділяти багато / мало часу навчанню to be (on) top of the class – бути найкращим у класі to take / make notes – конспектувати to get a Bachelor’s / Master’s degree – отримати ступінь бакалавра / магістра to hand in a course (term) paper (project) in time – здати курсову роботу вчасно to prepare / to get ready for an exam – готуватися до іспиту to revise material before an exam – повторювати матеріал перед іспитом a full-time / part-time student – студент стаціонару / студент-заочник (вечірник) to submit an application for submission – подати заяву про прийом до університета to cram before exams – зубрити перед іспитом a major – основний предмет a student’s card – студентський квиток an elective course – предмет на вибір to study in depth – глубоко вивчати to conduct a seminar – проводити семінар the title of the lecture – назва лекції a disciple – учень, послідовник вчення a survey course – оглядовий курс to enroll in a course / to sing up for a course –записатися на курс grades – оцінки to rehearse – репетирувати to deliver a paper – прочитати реферат / лекцію to prepare a paper on – підготувати доповідь / рефератна тему to hang one very word – прислухатися до кожного слова a pile of books – купа книг a campus – територія університету a dean’s office – кабінет декана a faculty office - викладацька a day-time (full-time) department – денний факультет an evening department – вечірній факультет a correspondence department – заочний факультет a dormitory / hall of residence / hostel – гуртожиток a canteen – їдальня a gym – спортзал a language laboratory – лінгафонний кабінет a lecture theater – лекційний зал a classroom – аудиторія a cloakroom – роздягальня a library – бібліотека computer classroom – комп’ютерний клас on-line education – освіта в режимі он-лайн a shift – зміна a number of lessons a day – кількість уроків на день optional and compulsory subjects – факультативні та обов’язкові предмети a course – курс length of courses – тривалість курсу exams and tests – іспити та контрольні роботи a choir – хор a speaking / dispute club – дискусійний клуб a student’s newspaper – студентська газета a sports club – спортклуб a drama club – драматичний клуб free of charge – безкоштовний annual / term / monthly fees – щорічна / семестрова/ помісячна оплата a group register – журнал гурту intermediate / continuous assessment – проміжне /постійне оцінювання expulsion – виняток to revise for an exam in… – повторювати перед іспитом по… to take an exam = to sit for an exam = to do an exam –скласти іспит to fail an exam / to do well in an exam – провалити / добре скласти іспит to do badly in an exam – скласти іспит погано to resit / retake an exam – пересдавати іспит to cheat in an exam – списувати на іспиті to examine students – екзаменувати студентів Examination Board – екзаменаційна комісія to pick an examination card – тягнути екзаменаційний квиток school-leaving exams – випускні іспити у школі university-entrance exams – вступні іспити в університеті a term paper – курсова робота a final exam – останній іспит a test period – час контрольної роботи to grind away for = to cram = to swot for an exam –зубрити перед іспитом to make / use a crib – зробити / використовувати шпаргалку an exam format – формат іспиту a flashcard – картка з текстом чи картинкою crucial – вирішальний to scan – швидко переглядати an all-nighter – підготовка до іспиту протягом усієї ночі a quote – цитата blank – порожній relevant – суттєвий to namedrop – похвалятися знайомством із відомими людьми to proofread – перевіряти to tailor to – застосовувати до to go to optional review sessions – ходити на додатковіконсультації to figure out – вирішувати to drift off – повільно засипати to include a catchphrase – включати «крилаті» вирази to glance through a bluebook – бистро переглянути зошит для тестів на іспиті to get a second wind – відкрити друге дихання notes on lectures – конспекти лекцій to fight tooth and nail – боротися не на життя, а насмерть to keep a close eye on smb – уважно стежити за кимось a rigid schedule – жорсткий графік extramural activities – додаткові заняття to face a temptation – зіткнутися зі спокусою to resist a temptation – встояти перед спокусою to yield to a temptation – не встояти перед спокусою to keep someone in check – тримати когось підконтролем I expected to… – Я очікував… My parents / teachers wanted me to… – Мої батьки / вчителі хотіли, щоб я… But I changed my mind and decided to… – Але я передумав і вирішив… I think I have a good chance of doing (smth) – Я думаю,у мене хороші шанси зробити щось. When I graduate, I’m going to… – Коли я закінчу вчитися, я збираюся… I hope I’ll be able to… – Я сподіваюсь, я сможу… I want to be… – Я хочу бути… I would like to… – Я хотів би…   UNIT 2. Handsome is as handsome does   HEAD – голова face – обличчя cheekbone – вилиця forehead – лоб jaw – щелепа mouth – рот brain – мозок skull – череп   TRUNK – тулуб back – спина neck – шия waist – талія bosom – груди (бюст) nipple – сосок navel – пуп belly – живіт chest – груди (грудна клітина) lung – легке kidney – нирка liver – печінка stomach – шлунок, живіт   LIMBS – кінцівки hand – рука (кисть) arm – рука (от кістки до плеча) shoulder – плече armpit – пахва wrist – зап’ястья elbow – лікоть palm – долоня folded arms – скрещенні руки fingernail – ніготь на руці thumb – великий палець руки forefinger – вказівний палець middle finger – середній палець ring finger – підмізинний (обручковий) палець little finger – мізинець knuckle – суглоб пальця leg – нога (від стегна до ступні) feet – ступня buttocks – стегно hip – стегно thigh – стегнова кістка knee – коліно ankle – лодижка shin – гомілка calf – литковий м’яз heel – п’ятка instep – підйом sole – підошва big toe – великий палець ступні toenail – ніготь на пальці ступні toes – пальці на ногах   FACE – обличчя moustache – вуси beard – борода whiskers – бакенбарди scar – шрам mole – родинка birthmark – родима пляма furrow – глубока зморшка на лобі wart – бородавка pimple / acne – прищ freckles – веснянки, листовинки wrinkles – зморшки oval / round / square – овальне / кругле / квадратне heart-shaped – сердцевидне pale – бліде swarthy – смагляве pimpled – прищаве beauty / a beauty / a real beauty – краса / красуня/справжня красуня attractive – привабливий good-looking / pleasant-looking – красивий handsome – красивий, імпозантний ugly – жахливий   HAIR – волосся long / short – довге / коротке shoulder-length – до плечей straight – пряме fair – світлі sandy – рудуваті auburn – золотисто-каштанові white / gray / grayish – білі / сірі / сивіючі copper – мідні honey-colored – кольору меду platinum blonde – платиновий блонд grizzling – сивіючі chestnut – каштанові jet-black – «воронього крила» a blonde – блондин a red-head – рудий a brunette – брюнетка dry – сухі silky – шовковисті receding – рідке heavy / bushy – густі tangled – сплутані fluffy – пухнасті, м’які natural / dyed – природні / фарбовані sun-blanched – вигорілі на сонці bleached – знебарвлені plaited hair – волосся, заплетене в коси plait – коса smooth – пряме loose – яке вільно спадає in pigtails – косички in a pony-tail – хвіст in a bun at the nape of the head – волосся убране впучок на потилиці a parting – проділ with parting on one side – с боковим проділом with centre parting – с проділом по центру bobbed – коротко стрижене spiky / crew cut – «їжак» wavy – хвилясті curly – кучеряві a curl – завиток disheveled / rumpled – розпатлане to get bald / to lose one’s hair – лисіти to dye one’s hair blonde – фарбувати волосся всвітлий колір to have one’s hair done in rollers – накрутити волосся на бігуді to have one’s hair tied into a tail – мати волосся у хвості a fringe – чуб   EYES – очі dark – темні brown / hazel – карі green – зелені blue – блакитні gray – сірі bags under the eyes – «мішки» під очіма far-set – широко посажені close-set – близько посажені deep-set – глибоко посажені almond – мигдалеподібні slant – косячі cross-eyed – косі slanting – роскосі bulging – на викаті bloodshot – налиті кров’ю look – погляд piercing / mischievous – глузливий shrewd – пронизливий soft / warm – м’який / теплий kind / friendly – добрий / дружелюбний hard – важкий quizzical – здивованний cold – холодний icy – крижаний strict – строгий dreamy – мрійливий sleepy – сонний near / short-sighted – короткозорий far / long-sighted – далекозорий to wear specs – носити окуляри (heavy-lensed) – з товстими лінзами (gilt-rimmed) – у золотій оправі to screw up one’s eyes – прижмурити очі eyebrows – брови arched – вигнуті shaggy / bushy – кущисті pencilled – підведені олівцем finely plucked – охайно вищипані to raise one’s eyebrows – підняти брові eyelashes – вії curving / thick / thin – вигнуті / густі / рідкісні a pupil (of an eye) – зіниця eyelid – повіка iris – райдужна оболонка   NOSE – ніс nostril – ніздря aquiline – ніс з горбинкою / орлиний a bridge of the nose – перенісся straight – прямий turned up / snub – кирпатий hooked – гачкуватий long / short – довгий / короткий broad – широкий flat – плоский   CHEEKS – щоки pale / ivory – бліді rosy / pink – рум’яні plump / chubby – пухкі hollow – запалі with dimples – з ямочками pink-and-white complexion – колір обличчя «кров ізмолоком»     LIPS – губи thin / full / thick / puffy – тонкі / повні / товсті / м’ясисті rosy / pink / cherry – рожеві / червоні / вишневі outlined with a lip pencil – підкресленні олівцем длягуб well-cut – правильної форми lower / upper lips – нижня / верхня губа to purse one’s lips – піджати губи   CHIN – підборіддя pointed – гостре double – подвійне with a cleft – з ямочкою protruding – виступаюче strong – масивне, вольове   SKIN – шкіра fair – світла dark – темна pale – блідна tanned – смуглява, засмагла delicate / sensitive – чутлива smooth – гладка dry – суха oily – жирна   TEETH – зуби even / regular – рівні crooked – криві strong – сильні big / little – великі / маленькі sharp – гострі artificial – вставні close-set – близько розташовані front – передні molar – корінні milk teeth – молочні dazzling white teeth – сліпуче білі зуби   EARS – уши big / small – великі / маленькі earlobe – мочка вуха protruding ears – стирчащі вуха lopped / cauliflower – лоповухі pierced – проколоті   FOREHEAD – лоб narrow / broad – вузький / широкий domed – круглий, похилий high / low – високий / низький a temple – скроня   SMILE – посмішка fixed / ready smile – «чергова» посмішка slight / little / faint – легка welcoming – гостинна knowing – хитра artificial – штучна kind / soft – добра / м’яка charming – чарівна friendly – доброзичлива sunny – весела strained – натягнута disarming – обеззброююча   BUILD. FIGURE. – Будова тіла. Фігура. slim / slender – стрункий stooping carriage – сутула постава erect carriage – пряма постава lean – худий skinny / bony – кістлявий fat / overweight – товстий, з надлишковою вагою well-rounded / stout – вгодований round / plump – «пампушка» thick-set / solid / stocky – присадкуватий frail – тендітний, кволий well-built – добре складенний wide / broad / narrow-shouldered – широкоплечий /вузькоплечий narrow-hipped – з вузкими стегнами an hour-glass figure – фігура у формі пісочногогодинника heavy / light / shuffling gait – важка/ легка/човгаюча хода graceful / delicate –витонченний, граціозний a cripple – каліка a hunchback – горбун   MAKE-UP – макіяж eyeliner – олівець для очей eyeshadow – тіні foundation – основа, тональний крем mascara – туш gloss – блиск blusher – рум’яна to put / remove – наносити / знімати to put a nail varnish – покривати нігті лаком to use a file / lotion / powder – використовуватипилочку / лосьйон / пудру   PERSONAL CHARACTERISTICS – особистіякості airy-fairy – витає у хмарах analytically-minded – з аналітичним складом розуму adventurous – активний, ризиковий demanding – вимогливий irresolute – нерішучий unsubmissive – неслухняний loyal – вірний naive – наївний organized – організований energetic – енергійний reserved – замкнутий persistent – наполеглевий ambitious – амбіціозний practical – практичний suspicious – недовірливий sentimental – сентиментальний unrealistic – нереалістичний trustworthy – надійний imaginative – обдарований багатою уявою creative – творчий faithful – сумлінний romantic – романтичний stupid – дурний cruel – жорстокий greedy – жадібний rude – грубий absent-minded – розсіяний, неуважний cowardly – боягузливий bоring – нудний miserable – нікчемний a pain in the neck – зануда a lazybones – ледар a slowcoach – копун a trouble-maker – баламут a skinflint – скнара a know-all – всезнайко a chatter-box – базікало a scatter-brain – вітряна людина a big head – хвалько a nosey parker – надмірно допитливий VOCABULARY 1. Fair (adj) — чудовий; білявий, світлий (про колір волосся). 2. Scene (n) — місце дії; сцена, дія п’єси. Scenery (n) — декорації; пейзаж. 3. Popular (adj) — популярний, той, що користується любов’ю, успіхом. Figure (n) — фігура. Be popular with somebody — користуватися успіхом у когось. Popularity (n) — популярність. 4. Character (n) — характер; образ, герой, дійова особа. The main character — головний герой. Characteristic (adj) — притаманний, типовий. 5. Proper (adj) — правильний, належний. Wrong (adj) — неправильний. Properly (adv) — належним чином, правильно. Behave properly — поводитися належним чином. Speak properly — говорити правильно. Do something properly — робити щось належним чином. 6. Rise (v, rose, risen) — підніматися, вставати; підніматися, зростати. Raise one’s hand — піднімати руку. Raise one’s head — здіймати голову. Raise one’s hat — піднімати капелюх. Raise one’s glass to somebody — піднімати тост за когось. Rise (n) — підйом, підняття. At the rise of the curtain — коли піднімають завісу. 7. Stage (n) — сцена, естрада, театральні підмостки. Stage (v) — ставити п’єсу. 8. Miss (n) — міс, пані (перед прізвищем незаміжньої жінки). 9. Mrs — місіс, пані (перед прізвищем заміжньої жінки). Ms — пані (перед прізвищем жінки незалежно від її сімейного стану). 10. Mr (mister) — містер, пан (перед прізвищем чоловіка). Professor — професор. Doctor — доктор. Colonel — полковник. Mr Chairman / Mr President — пане голово / пане президенте. Ladies and gentlemen — пані та панове. Sir — сер, пане (ввічлива форма звертання до чоловіка); сер, пане (звертання до гостя). 11. Lady (n) — дама, пані, леді; титул знатної дами. Madam — мадам, пані (шаноблива форма звертання без прізвища). Ma’am (coll.) — пані. Madame Chairman — пані голово. 12. Gentleman (n) — джентльмен, гарно вихована людина; пан, чоловік. 13. Dress (v) — одягати когось. Undress (v) — роздягати, знімати одяг. Dress for dinner / a party / an occasion — одягатися на званий обід / вечірку / особливу подію. Be dressed in tweeds — бути одягненим у твідовий костюм. Put on something — одягати, надягати. Take off something — знімати. Put on a hat / coat / gloves — надягати капелюх / пальто / рукавички. Dress (n) — сукня, одяг, туалет. Formal dress — офіційний одяг. Evening dress — вечірня сукня. Full dress — парадна форма. The best dress — вихідний костюм (сукня). 14. Go (v, went, gone) — йти, ходити, їхати. Go to the theatre / cinema / country / seaside — піти до театру / кіно / поїхати за місто / до моря. Go to school — піти до школи. Go home — піти додому. Go by plane / air / train / car / bus / underground — летіти літаком / повітрям; їхати поїздом / машиною / автобусом / метро. Go on a business trip / journey / excursion — вирушати у відрядження / подорож / поїздку / на екскурсію. Go swimming / skiing / fishing / shopping — вирушати плавати / кататися на лижах / на рибалку / за покупками. Go — піти, від’їжджати. Go in for sports — активно займатися спортом. 15. Nice (adj) — гарний, приємний, милий. A nice person / day / play / party — мила людина / гарний день / гарна п’єса / приємна вечірка. How nice of you to come / do it / say so! — Як добре з Вашого боку, що Ви прийшли / це зробили! Як приємно, що Ви це кажете! 16. Common (adj) — звичайний; спільний. Common views — спільні погляди. A common interest — спільний інтерес. A common language — спільна мова. Common people — звичайний народ. A common girl — звичайна дівчина. A common person — звичайна людина. 17. Keep (v, kept, kept) — тримати, зберігати, виконувати. Keep a book — зберігати книгу. Keep a promise — виконувати обіцянку. Keep an appointment — прийти на ділову зустріч. Keep a secret — зберігати таємницю. Keep a shop / hotel / restaurant — бути власником магазину / готелю / ресторану. Keep quiet / silent — мовчати. Keep fit — бути у формі. Keep to the subject — дотримуватися суті проблеми. Keep up something — підтримувати щось на певному рівні. Do morning exercises — робити ранкову зарядку. Door-keeper (n) — вахтер. 18. Change (v) — змінюватися; перевдягатися; робити пересадку; обмінювати, розмінювати гроші. Change for a dinner / party / reception — перевдягатися на обід / вечірку / прийом. Change (n) — зміна; решта. Keep the change — решти не треба. 19. Introduce (v) — представляти, знайомити. Introduce oneself — відрекомендуватися. Introduction (n) — представлення (офіційне), введення. A letter of introduction — рекомендаційний лист. Present (v) — представляти (дуже офіційно). 20. Kind (adj) — добрий, сердечний, люб’язний. A kind person / invitation — добра людина / люб’язне запрошення. How kind / nice of you to… — Як люб’язно з Вашого боку… 21. Serve (v) — служити; обслуговувати, подавати на стіл. Serve dinner / tea — подавати обід / чай. Dinner is served! — Обід подано! Service (n) — послуга, служба, обслуговування. Diplomatic service — дипломатична служба. Consular service — консульська служба. Health service — медичне обслуговування. At your service — до ваших послуг. Servant (n) — слуга, прислуга. 22. Sorry (adj) — засмучений, сповнений жалю. I’m sorry to say that — На жаль, я маю сказати, що… I’m sorry to hear that — Я зі смутком почув / почула, що… I’m sorry I’m late — Пробачте, що я спізнився / спізнилася. I’m (so) sorry — Винен / винна. Вибачте! 23. Miss (v) — втратити, пропустити; бракувати, зникати; сумувати. Miss a lesson — пропустити заняття. Miss an appointment — пропустити ділову зустріч. Miss an opportunity — втратити нагоду. Miss a bus — запізнитися на автобус. Miss a word / paragraph / person / plane — пропустити слово / абзац; втратити людину / літак. Miss somebody — сумувати за кимось. 24. Stay (v) — залишатися, затримуватися; знаходитися; зупинятися, жити, гостювати. Stay for dinner / tea — залишатися на обід / чай. Stay with us a little longer — залишитися з нами ще трохи. Stay at home — залишатися вдома. Stay indoors — знаходитися у приміщенні. Stay outdoors — знаходитися поза приміщенням. Stay at a hotel — зупинятися у готелі. Stay at friends’ place — зупинятися у друзів. 25. Hard (adj / adv) — сильно; наполегливо, завзято. It is snowing hard — Йде сильний сніг. It is raining hard — Йде сильний дощ. Try hard — старатися, докладати зусиль. Work hard — наполегливо працювати. Hardly (adv) — ледве. I could hardly recognize him — Я ледве зміг / змогла впізнати його. I hardly know her — Я її ледве знаю.

PRAXIS MUSIC 5113 STUDY GUIDE Music Content Knowledge PURPOSE This study guide reviews important concepts in music theory, music history, performance, aural skills, music education, notation, and technology. It is a study resource, not a guarantee of the exact questions that will appear on the exam. SECTION 1: MUSIC THEORY 1. THE MUSICAL ALPHABET The musical alphabet consists of seven letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G After G, the letters begin again at A. A sharp raises a note by one semitone. A flat lowers a note by one semitone. A natural cancels a previous sharp or flat. A half step is the smallest interval in standard Western equal-tempered music. A whole step equals two half steps. Important natural half steps: E to F B to C Examples of whole steps: C to D F to G A to B 2. MAJOR SCALES The major scale follows this pattern: WHOLE, WHOLE, HALF, WHOLE, WHOLE, WHOLE, HALF C MAJOR: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C Half steps occur between E and F and between B and C. G MAJOR: G, A, B, C, D, E, F-sharp, G D MAJOR: D, E, F-sharp, G, A, B, C-sharp, D F MAJOR: F, G, A, B-flat, C, D, E, F B-flat MAJOR: B-flat, C, D, E-flat, F, G, A, B-flat 3. KEY SIGNATURES Order of sharps: F, C, G, D, A, E, B Order of flats: B, E, A, D, G, C, F Common major keys: C major has zero sharps or flats. G major has one sharp, F-sharp. D major has two sharps, F-sharp and C-sharp. A major has three sharps, F-sharp, C-sharp, and G-sharp. E major has four sharps. B major has five sharps. F-sharp major has six sharps. C-sharp major has seven sharps. F major has one flat, B-flat. B-flat major has two flats, B-flat and E-flat. E-flat major has three flats. A-flat major has four flats. D-flat major has five flats. G-flat major has six flats. C-flat major has seven flats. Relative major and minor keys share the same key signature. Examples: C major and A minor have no sharps or flats. G major and E minor have one sharp. F major and D minor have one flat. 4. SCALE DEGREES Scale degree 1: Tonic Scale degree 2: Supertonic Scale degree 3: Mediant Scale degree 4: Subdominant Scale degree 5: Dominant Scale degree 6: Submediant Scale degree 7: Leading tone Scale degree 8: Tonic, one octave higher In C major: 1 = C 2 = D 3 = E 4 = F 5 = G 6 = A 7 = B 8 = C The tonic is the tonal center and often feels like home. The dominant is scale degree 5 and commonly resolves to the tonic. The leading tone is scale degree 7 and commonly resolves upward to the tonic. 5. INTERVALS An interval is the distance between two pitches. Perfect unison: C to C Minor second: C to D-flat Major second: C to D Minor third: C to E-flat Major third: C to E Perfect fourth: C to F Tritone: C to F-sharp Perfect fifth: C to G Minor sixth: C to A-flat Major sixth: C to A Minor seventh: C to B-flat Major seventh: C to B Perfect octave: C to the next C Intervals have a number and a quality. Interval numbers include second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and octave. Interval qualities include major, minor, perfect, augmented, and diminished. 6. TRIADS AND CHORDS A triad contains three notes, usually stacked in thirds. Major triad: Root, major third, perfect fifth. Example: C, E, G. Minor triad: Root, minor third, perfect fifth. Example: C, E-flat, G. Diminished triad: Root, minor third, diminished fifth. Example: C, E-flat, G-flat. Augmented triad: Root, major third, augmented fifth. Example: C, E, G-sharp. In a major key, the usual triad pattern is: I = major ii = minor iii = minor IV = major V = major vi = minor vii diminished = diminished Uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords in this pattern. Lowercase Roman numerals represent minor chords. The diminished symbol identifies a diminished chord. In C major, the I chord is C major and the V chord is G major. The V chord commonly resolves to the I chord. 7. RHYTHM AND NOTE VALUES Whole note = four quarter-note beats. Half note = two quarter-note beats. Quarter note = one beat. Eighth note = half a beat. Sixteenth note = one-quarter of a beat. These values assume a simple meter in which the quarter note receives one beat. A dot adds half the original note value. A dotted half note equals three quarter-note beats. A rest indicates silence for a specific duration. The beat is the underlying pulse of music. Rhythm is the organization of note durations and rests. Tempo is the speed of the beat. Meter organizes beats into recurring groups. A measure is a unit of music separated by bar lines. Syncopation emphasizes unexpected beats or subdivisions. 8. TIME SIGNATURES The top number indicates how many beats or counting units are grouped in a measure. The bottom number identifies the note value used as the unit. 2/4 usually has two quarter-note beats per measure. 3/4 usually has three quarter-note beats per measure. 4/4 usually has four quarter-note beats per measure. 6/8 usually has two main beats, each divided into three eighth notes. Simple meter divides each main beat into two. Compound meter divides each main beat into three. Examples of simple meter include 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4. Examples of compound meter include 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8. 9. MUSICAL TEXTURE Monophonic texture consists of one melodic line. Several people singing the same melody in unison can still be monophonic. Homophonic texture consists of a melody supported by accompaniment or harmony. Polyphonic texture consists of two or more independent melodic lines. Heterophonic texture consists of simultaneous variations of the same melody. 10. MUSICAL FORM Binary form: AB. Ternary form: ABA. Rondo form: A recurring main section alternates with contrasting sections. An example is ABACA. Theme and variations: A theme is repeated with changes. Strophic form: The same music is repeated for different verses. Through-composed form: The music continues with new material rather than repeating the same large sections. Sonata form commonly includes exposition, development, and recapitulation. 11. DYNAMICS, TEMPO, AND ARTICULATION pp = pianissimo, very soft. p = piano, soft. mp = mezzo-piano, moderately soft. mf = mezzo-forte, moderately loud. f = forte, loud. ff = fortissimo, very loud. Crescendo means gradually louder. Diminuendo means gradually softer. Allegro means fast and lively. Adagio means slow. Andante means a walking pace. Moderato means moderate speed. Presto means very fast. Staccato means short and detached. Legato means smooth and connected. Accent means a note receives emphasis. Fermata means a note or rest is prolonged as directed. SECTION 2: MUSIC HISTORY AND LITERATURE 1. MEDIEVAL PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 500 TO 1400 Important characteristics: Gregorian chant Monophonic sacred music Early musical notation Development of organum, which added voices to chant Important composer: Hildegard of Bingen 2. RENAISSANCE PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1400 TO 1600 Important characteristics: Polyphony Imitative counterpoint Balanced vocal writing Growth of secular vocal music Important genres: Motet Madrigal Mass Important composers: Josquin des Prez Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Thomas Morley A madrigal is a secular vocal composition associated particularly with the Renaissance. 3. BAROQUE PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1600 TO 1750 Important characteristics: Ornamentation Contrast Basso continuo Counterpoint Development of opera Elaborate musical expression Important genres: Fugue Suite Concerto Opera Oratorio Important composers: Johann Sebastian Bach: Known for fugues, counterpoint, and sacred music. George Frideric Handel: Known for Messiah and other oratorios. Antonio Vivaldi: Known for The Four Seasons and concertos. Claudio Monteverdi: Important in the development of early opera. 4. CLASSICAL PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1750 TO 1820 Important characteristics: Balance Clarity Symmetry Clear phrase structure Formal organization Important genres: Symphony Sonata String quartet Concerto Opera Important composers: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Known for operas, symphonies, and concertos. Joseph Haydn: Known for symphonies and string quartets. Ludwig van Beethoven: Bridged the Classical and Romantic periods. Sonata form commonly consists of exposition, development, and recapitulation. 5. ROMANTIC PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1820 TO 1900 Important characteristics: Emotional expression Expanded orchestras Richer harmony Nationalism Program music Virtuosic performance Important composers: Franz Schubert: Known for art songs and lieder. Frédéric Chopin: Known for piano compositions. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Known for ballets and orchestral music. Richard Wagner: Known for music dramas and operas. Hector Berlioz: Known for orchestration and programmatic music. Franz Liszt: Known for piano virtuosity and symphonic poems. 6. TWENTIETH-CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY MUSIC Impressionism: Associated with Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Emphasizes musical color, timbre, and distinctive harmonic language. Atonality: Music that does not rely on a conventional tonal center. Arnold Schoenberg is an important figure. Neoclassicism: Uses or adapts features associated with earlier musical periods. Igor Stravinsky is associated with this movement. Minimalism: Uses repetition and gradual musical change. Important composers include Philip Glass and Steve Reich. Other topics: Jazz Blues Electronic music Film music Experimental music Global musical traditions 7. IMPORTANT MUSICAL GENRES Symphony: A large-scale orchestral work, often consisting of several movements. Concerto: A work featuring a soloist or soloists in contrast with an orchestra. Sonata: An instrumental composition, often in multiple movements. Fugue: A contrapuntal composition based on a subject introduced in different voices. Opera: A dramatic work presented primarily through singing with instrumental accompaniment. Oratorio: A large vocal work, often sacred, generally performed without the staging typical of opera. Art song or Lied: A solo vocal composition, usually with piano accompaniment. Mass: A musical setting of texts from the Christian liturgy. Motet: A choral genre, often sacred, whose characteristics vary by period. Madrigal: A secular vocal genre especially associated with the Renaissance. SECTION 3: WORLD MUSIC AND CULTURAL CONTEXT West African drumming traditions: May feature layered rhythms, interlocking patterns, call and response, and community participation. Indian classical music: Raga refers to a melodic framework. Tala refers to a rhythmic cycle. Indonesian gamelan: Ensembles often include gongs, metallophones, and other instruments. Japanese shakuhachi: An end-blown bamboo flute. Blues: An African American musical tradition associated with expressive phrasing, blue notes, and characteristic harmonic patterns. Jazz: Often includes improvisation, interaction among musicians, and swing, depending on the style. Latin American music: Includes many regional traditions shaped by Indigenous, African, and European influences. Important principle: Study the sound, instruments, cultural context, and function of each musical tradition. Avoid assuming that every culture uses Western notation, harmony, or musical structures. SECTION 4: INSTRUMENT FAMILIES 1. WOODWINDS Examples: Flute Piccolo Oboe English horn Clarinet Bass clarinet Bassoon Contrabassoon Saxophone The flute produces sound when air is blown across an opening. The clarinet uses a single reed. The oboe uses a double reed. The bassoon uses a double reed. The saxophone uses a single reed, even though it is commonly made of brass. 2. BRASS Examples: Trumpet French horn Trombone Euphonium Tuba Brass instruments produce sound through the vibration of the player's lips against a mouthpiece. The trombone commonly uses a slide. The trumpet is generally the highest standard orchestral brass instrument. The tuba is generally the lowest standard orchestral brass instrument. 3. STRINGS Examples: Violin Viola Cello Double bass The violin is generally the highest standard orchestral string instrument. The viola is larger and lower in pitch than the violin. The cello is commonly played while seated. The double bass is the lowest standard orchestral string instrument. Strings can produce sound by bowing or plucking. 4. PERCUSSION Examples: Timpani Snare drum Bass drum Cymbals Triangle Tambourine Xylophone Marimba Vibraphone Definite-pitch percussion instruments include the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and timpani. Many drums and cymbals produce sounds without a single definite pitch. Percussion instruments are not all unpitched. SECTION 5: VOCAL MUSIC 1. VOICE TYPES Soprano: Highest common adult female voice category. Mezzo-soprano: Middle adult female voice category. Alto or contralto: Lower adult female voice category. Tenor: Highest common adult male voice category. Baritone: Middle adult male voice category. Bass: Lowest common adult male voice category. SATB stands for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Voice ranges can overlap. A student's comfortable singing range is more important than a single note boundary. 2. VOCAL HEALTH Encourage proper posture and relaxed breathing. Use age-appropriate warm-ups. Encourage hydration. Avoid forcing students to sing outside a comfortable range. Recognize that adolescent voices change at different rates. Adapt vocal parts to accommodate changing voices. Range refers to the pitches a singer can produce. Tessitura refers to the range in which a singer is most comfortable and can sing sustainably. SECTION 6: AURAL SKILLS AND PERFORMANCE 1. LISTENING VOCABULARY Pitch: How high or low a sound is. Timbre: The quality or color of a sound. Dynamics: The loudness and softness of music. Articulation: How notes begin, connect, and end. Intonation: The accuracy of pitch. Balance: The relative loudness of musical parts. Blend: How well sounds combine within an ensemble. Tempo: The speed of the beat. Texture: The relationship among musical lines. Form: The overall organization of a musical composition. 2. CONDUCTING Conducting patterns communicate meter and coordinate performers. Two-beat pattern: Two main beats per measure. Three-beat pattern: Three main beats per measure. Four-beat pattern: Four main beats per measure. The preparatory gesture establishes the tempo and helps cue the entrance. The ictus is the focal point of a beat gesture. A cutoff gesture indicates when performers should stop producing sound. Clear gestures, consistent tempo, and appropriate eye contact help ensembles perform together. 3. TUNING AND INTONATION Tuning establishes a reference pitch. Intonation describes the accuracy of performed pitches. A sharp pitch is too high. A flat pitch is too low. Musicians should listen to one another and adjust pitch, balance, and blend. Warm-ups prepare performers physically and musically. 4. TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS Some instruments sound at a different pitch from the written note. B-flat trumpet: Written C sounds as B-flat. B-flat clarinet: Written C sounds as B-flat. E-flat alto saxophone: Written C sounds as E-flat. F horn: Written C sounds as F. These are standard written-to-sounding relationships for the listed instruments. SECTION 7: MUSIC EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGY 1. IMPORTANT TEACHING APPROACHES Orff Schulwerk: Uses speech, movement, improvisation, and accessible percussion instruments. Kodály: Emphasizes singing, solfege, inner hearing, and sequential musicianship. Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Uses bodily movement to experience musical concepts, particularly rhythm. Suzuki: Emphasizes listening, repetition, early instrumental learning, and family involvement. Gordon Music Learning Theory: Emphasizes audiation, the ability to hear and comprehend music internally. 2. SOLFEGE Movable-do solfege connects syllables to scale degrees. Scale degree 1 = Do Scale degree 2 = Re Scale degree 3 = Mi Scale degree 4 = Fa Scale degree 5 = Sol Scale degree 6 = La Scale degree 7 = Ti Scale degree 8 = Do In movable do, Do represents the tonic of the key. In fixed do, syllables correspond to specific note names. Hearing is the physical process of perceiving sound. Audiation is the mental process of hearing and understanding music internally. 3. LESSON PLANNING A strong music lesson includes: A clear learning objective. Activities that directly support the objective. Opportunities for guided and independent practice. Assessment to determine whether students met the objective. Feedback and adjustments for future instruction. Example objective: Students will accurately clap and identify quarter notes, eighth notes, and quarter rests in a four-beat measure. An appropriate assessment would ask students to perform or identify the rhythms. 4. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT Diagnostic assessment: Identifies what students know before instruction. Formative assessment: Checks learning during instruction and helps the teacher adjust instruction. Summative assessment: Evaluates learning after a unit or at the end of instruction. Performance assessment: Requires students to demonstrate a skill, such as singing a melody. Rubric: Defines assessment criteria and performance levels. Example: If students struggle with a rhythmic pattern during rehearsal, the teacher can model the rhythm, provide guided practice, and reassess their performance. 5. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND INCLUSION Give clear instructions. Model the expected behavior. Establish routines for distributing instruments and transitioning between activities. Choose age-appropriate repertoire. Use suitable vocal and instrumental ranges. Adapt instruction to accommodate different abilities and learning needs. Provide multiple ways for students to demonstrate understanding. Give specific and constructive feedback. Maintain a respectful environment where students can participate without humiliation. 6. COPYRIGHT AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Copyright generally protects original musical works and sound recordings, subject to applicable law. Purchasing sheet music does not automatically grant permission to copy or distribute it. Educational use is not automatically exempt from copyright restrictions. Fair use depends on the circumstances and relevant legal factors. Use appropriately licensed scores, recordings, and digital resources. Respect student privacy and follow school policies when recording or sharing performances. Credit sources and respect creators' rights. SECTION 8: MUSIC TECHNOLOGY AND ACOUSTICS MIDI: Represents musical performance data, including notes, timing, and velocity. MIDI is not itself a recorded audio waveform. Digital audio: Represents sound using digital samples. Microphone: Converts sound into an electrical signal. Amplification: Increases the level of an audio signal. Reverberation: The persistence of sound due to reflections in an environment. Acoustics: The study of how sound behaves in spaces and environments. Frequency: Measured in hertz and related to perceived pitch. Amplitude: Describes the magnitude of a sound wave or signal and is related to perceived loudness. Timbre: The quality that helps distinguish sounds produced by different instruments or voices. Important distinction: Frequency is not the same as loudness. Higher frequency generally corresponds to higher pitch, while greater amplitude generally corresponds to greater loudness. SECTION 9: MUSICAL NOTATION AND TERMS 1. STAFF AND CLEFS Treble clef lines, from bottom to top: E, G, B, D, F. Treble clef spaces, from bottom to top: F, A, C, E. Bass clef lines, from bottom to top: G, B, D, F, A. Bass clef spaces, from bottom to top: A, C, E, G. Ledger lines extend the staff to represent pitches above or below it. 2. ADDITIONAL TERMS Enharmonic notes: Notes that sound the same in equal temperament but have different spellings, such as C-sharp and D-flat. Anacrusis: An incomplete opening measure, also called a pickup. Ostinato: A repeated musical pattern. Rubato: Expressive flexibility in tempo. Cadenza: A soloistic passage, often virtuosic, traditionally associated with a concerto. A cappella: Singing without instrumental accompaniment. Counterpoint: The combination of independent melodic lines. Basso continuo: A Baroque accompaniment practice involving a bass line and harmonic realization.

Psychology Unit 2 AOS 1 - How are people influenced to behave in particular ways?

behave mod 4-7

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SB before and beFIVE

pwc behav

Beery-Buktenica Test of Visual Motor Integration (BeeryVMI)

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beehive 3 unit 8 l1

Resrch Meth in Behav Science Ch. 4, 5, 6

Standing practice (to stand/is standing behaves differently)