PRAXIS MUSIC 5113 STUDY GUIDE Music Content Knowledge PURPOSE This study guide reviews important concepts in music theory, music history, performance, aural skills, music education, notation, and technology. It is a study resource, not a guarantee of the exact questions that will appear on the exam. SECTION 1: MUSIC THEORY 1. THE MUSICAL ALPHABET The musical alphabet consists of seven letters: A, B, C, D, E, F, G After G, the letters begin again at A. A sharp raises a note by one semitone. A flat lowers a note by one semitone. A natural cancels a previous sharp or flat. A half step is the smallest interval in standard Western equal-tempered music. A whole step equals two half steps. Important natural half steps: E to F B to C Examples of whole steps: C to D F to G A to B 2. MAJOR SCALES The major scale follows this pattern: WHOLE, WHOLE, HALF, WHOLE, WHOLE, WHOLE, HALF C MAJOR: C, D, E, F, G, A, B, C Half steps occur between E and F and between B and C. G MAJOR: G, A, B, C, D, E, F-sharp, G D MAJOR: D, E, F-sharp, G, A, B, C-sharp, D F MAJOR: F, G, A, B-flat, C, D, E, F B-flat MAJOR: B-flat, C, D, E-flat, F, G, A, B-flat 3. KEY SIGNATURES Order of sharps: F, C, G, D, A, E, B Order of flats: B, E, A, D, G, C, F Common major keys: C major has zero sharps or flats. G major has one sharp, F-sharp. D major has two sharps, F-sharp and C-sharp. A major has three sharps, F-sharp, C-sharp, and G-sharp. E major has four sharps. B major has five sharps. F-sharp major has six sharps. C-sharp major has seven sharps. F major has one flat, B-flat. B-flat major has two flats, B-flat and E-flat. E-flat major has three flats. A-flat major has four flats. D-flat major has five flats. G-flat major has six flats. C-flat major has seven flats. Relative major and minor keys share the same key signature. Examples: C major and A minor have no sharps or flats. G major and E minor have one sharp. F major and D minor have one flat. 4. SCALE DEGREES Scale degree 1: Tonic Scale degree 2: Supertonic Scale degree 3: Mediant Scale degree 4: Subdominant Scale degree 5: Dominant Scale degree 6: Submediant Scale degree 7: Leading tone Scale degree 8: Tonic, one octave higher In C major: 1 = C 2 = D 3 = E 4 = F 5 = G 6 = A 7 = B 8 = C The tonic is the tonal center and often feels like home. The dominant is scale degree 5 and commonly resolves to the tonic. The leading tone is scale degree 7 and commonly resolves upward to the tonic. 5. INTERVALS An interval is the distance between two pitches. Perfect unison: C to C Minor second: C to D-flat Major second: C to D Minor third: C to E-flat Major third: C to E Perfect fourth: C to F Tritone: C to F-sharp Perfect fifth: C to G Minor sixth: C to A-flat Major sixth: C to A Minor seventh: C to B-flat Major seventh: C to B Perfect octave: C to the next C Intervals have a number and a quality. Interval numbers include second, third, fourth, fifth, sixth, seventh, and octave. Interval qualities include major, minor, perfect, augmented, and diminished. 6. TRIADS AND CHORDS A triad contains three notes, usually stacked in thirds. Major triad: Root, major third, perfect fifth. Example: C, E, G. Minor triad: Root, minor third, perfect fifth. Example: C, E-flat, G. Diminished triad: Root, minor third, diminished fifth. Example: C, E-flat, G-flat. Augmented triad: Root, major third, augmented fifth. Example: C, E, G-sharp. In a major key, the usual triad pattern is: I = major ii = minor iii = minor IV = major V = major vi = minor vii diminished = diminished Uppercase Roman numerals represent major chords in this pattern. Lowercase Roman numerals represent minor chords. The diminished symbol identifies a diminished chord. In C major, the I chord is C major and the V chord is G major. The V chord commonly resolves to the I chord. 7. RHYTHM AND NOTE VALUES Whole note = four quarter-note beats. Half note = two quarter-note beats. Quarter note = one beat. Eighth note = half a beat. Sixteenth note = one-quarter of a beat. These values assume a simple meter in which the quarter note receives one beat. A dot adds half the original note value. A dotted half note equals three quarter-note beats. A rest indicates silence for a specific duration. The beat is the underlying pulse of music. Rhythm is the organization of note durations and rests. Tempo is the speed of the beat. Meter organizes beats into recurring groups. A measure is a unit of music separated by bar lines. Syncopation emphasizes unexpected beats or subdivisions. 8. TIME SIGNATURES The top number indicates how many beats or counting units are grouped in a measure. The bottom number identifies the note value used as the unit. 2/4 usually has two quarter-note beats per measure. 3/4 usually has three quarter-note beats per measure. 4/4 usually has four quarter-note beats per measure. 6/8 usually has two main beats, each divided into three eighth notes. Simple meter divides each main beat into two. Compound meter divides each main beat into three. Examples of simple meter include 2/4, 3/4, and 4/4. Examples of compound meter include 6/8, 9/8, and 12/8. 9. MUSICAL TEXTURE Monophonic texture consists of one melodic line. Several people singing the same melody in unison can still be monophonic. Homophonic texture consists of a melody supported by accompaniment or harmony. Polyphonic texture consists of two or more independent melodic lines. Heterophonic texture consists of simultaneous variations of the same melody. 10. MUSICAL FORM Binary form: AB. Ternary form: ABA. Rondo form: A recurring main section alternates with contrasting sections. An example is ABACA. Theme and variations: A theme is repeated with changes. Strophic form: The same music is repeated for different verses. Through-composed form: The music continues with new material rather than repeating the same large sections. Sonata form commonly includes exposition, development, and recapitulation. 11. DYNAMICS, TEMPO, AND ARTICULATION pp = pianissimo, very soft. p = piano, soft. mp = mezzo-piano, moderately soft. mf = mezzo-forte, moderately loud. f = forte, loud. ff = fortissimo, very loud. Crescendo means gradually louder. Diminuendo means gradually softer. Allegro means fast and lively. Adagio means slow. Andante means a walking pace. Moderato means moderate speed. Presto means very fast. Staccato means short and detached. Legato means smooth and connected. Accent means a note receives emphasis. Fermata means a note or rest is prolonged as directed. SECTION 2: MUSIC HISTORY AND LITERATURE 1. MEDIEVAL PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 500 TO 1400 Important characteristics: Gregorian chant Monophonic sacred music Early musical notation Development of organum, which added voices to chant Important composer: Hildegard of Bingen 2. RENAISSANCE PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1400 TO 1600 Important characteristics: Polyphony Imitative counterpoint Balanced vocal writing Growth of secular vocal music Important genres: Motet Madrigal Mass Important composers: Josquin des Prez Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina Thomas Morley A madrigal is a secular vocal composition associated particularly with the Renaissance. 3. BAROQUE PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1600 TO 1750 Important characteristics: Ornamentation Contrast Basso continuo Counterpoint Development of opera Elaborate musical expression Important genres: Fugue Suite Concerto Opera Oratorio Important composers: Johann Sebastian Bach: Known for fugues, counterpoint, and sacred music. George Frideric Handel: Known for Messiah and other oratorios. Antonio Vivaldi: Known for The Four Seasons and concertos. Claudio Monteverdi: Important in the development of early opera. 4. CLASSICAL PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1750 TO 1820 Important characteristics: Balance Clarity Symmetry Clear phrase structure Formal organization Important genres: Symphony Sonata String quartet Concerto Opera Important composers: Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Known for operas, symphonies, and concertos. Joseph Haydn: Known for symphonies and string quartets. Ludwig van Beethoven: Bridged the Classical and Romantic periods. Sonata form commonly consists of exposition, development, and recapitulation. 5. ROMANTIC PERIOD, APPROXIMATELY 1820 TO 1900 Important characteristics: Emotional expression Expanded orchestras Richer harmony Nationalism Program music Virtuosic performance Important composers: Franz Schubert: Known for art songs and lieder. Frédéric Chopin: Known for piano compositions. Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky: Known for ballets and orchestral music. Richard Wagner: Known for music dramas and operas. Hector Berlioz: Known for orchestration and programmatic music. Franz Liszt: Known for piano virtuosity and symphonic poems. 6. TWENTIETH-CENTURY AND CONTEMPORARY MUSIC Impressionism: Associated with Claude Debussy and Maurice Ravel. Emphasizes musical color, timbre, and distinctive harmonic language. Atonality: Music that does not rely on a conventional tonal center. Arnold Schoenberg is an important figure. Neoclassicism: Uses or adapts features associated with earlier musical periods. Igor Stravinsky is associated with this movement. Minimalism: Uses repetition and gradual musical change. Important composers include Philip Glass and Steve Reich. Other topics: Jazz Blues Electronic music Film music Experimental music Global musical traditions 7. IMPORTANT MUSICAL GENRES Symphony: A large-scale orchestral work, often consisting of several movements. Concerto: A work featuring a soloist or soloists in contrast with an orchestra. Sonata: An instrumental composition, often in multiple movements. Fugue: A contrapuntal composition based on a subject introduced in different voices. Opera: A dramatic work presented primarily through singing with instrumental accompaniment. Oratorio: A large vocal work, often sacred, generally performed without the staging typical of opera. Art song or Lied: A solo vocal composition, usually with piano accompaniment. Mass: A musical setting of texts from the Christian liturgy. Motet: A choral genre, often sacred, whose characteristics vary by period. Madrigal: A secular vocal genre especially associated with the Renaissance. SECTION 3: WORLD MUSIC AND CULTURAL CONTEXT West African drumming traditions: May feature layered rhythms, interlocking patterns, call and response, and community participation. Indian classical music: Raga refers to a melodic framework. Tala refers to a rhythmic cycle. Indonesian gamelan: Ensembles often include gongs, metallophones, and other instruments. Japanese shakuhachi: An end-blown bamboo flute. Blues: An African American musical tradition associated with expressive phrasing, blue notes, and characteristic harmonic patterns. Jazz: Often includes improvisation, interaction among musicians, and swing, depending on the style. Latin American music: Includes many regional traditions shaped by Indigenous, African, and European influences. Important principle: Study the sound, instruments, cultural context, and function of each musical tradition. Avoid assuming that every culture uses Western notation, harmony, or musical structures. SECTION 4: INSTRUMENT FAMILIES 1. WOODWINDS Examples: Flute Piccolo Oboe English horn Clarinet Bass clarinet Bassoon Contrabassoon Saxophone The flute produces sound when air is blown across an opening. The clarinet uses a single reed. The oboe uses a double reed. The bassoon uses a double reed. The saxophone uses a single reed, even though it is commonly made of brass. 2. BRASS Examples: Trumpet French horn Trombone Euphonium Tuba Brass instruments produce sound through the vibration of the player's lips against a mouthpiece. The trombone commonly uses a slide. The trumpet is generally the highest standard orchestral brass instrument. The tuba is generally the lowest standard orchestral brass instrument. 3. STRINGS Examples: Violin Viola Cello Double bass The violin is generally the highest standard orchestral string instrument. The viola is larger and lower in pitch than the violin. The cello is commonly played while seated. The double bass is the lowest standard orchestral string instrument. Strings can produce sound by bowing or plucking. 4. PERCUSSION Examples: Timpani Snare drum Bass drum Cymbals Triangle Tambourine Xylophone Marimba Vibraphone Definite-pitch percussion instruments include the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, and timpani. Many drums and cymbals produce sounds without a single definite pitch. Percussion instruments are not all unpitched. SECTION 5: VOCAL MUSIC 1. VOICE TYPES Soprano: Highest common adult female voice category. Mezzo-soprano: Middle adult female voice category. Alto or contralto: Lower adult female voice category. Tenor: Highest common adult male voice category. Baritone: Middle adult male voice category. Bass: Lowest common adult male voice category. SATB stands for soprano, alto, tenor, and bass. Voice ranges can overlap. A student's comfortable singing range is more important than a single note boundary. 2. VOCAL HEALTH Encourage proper posture and relaxed breathing. Use age-appropriate warm-ups. Encourage hydration. Avoid forcing students to sing outside a comfortable range. Recognize that adolescent voices change at different rates. Adapt vocal parts to accommodate changing voices. Range refers to the pitches a singer can produce. Tessitura refers to the range in which a singer is most comfortable and can sing sustainably. SECTION 6: AURAL SKILLS AND PERFORMANCE 1. LISTENING VOCABULARY Pitch: How high or low a sound is. Timbre: The quality or color of a sound. Dynamics: The loudness and softness of music. Articulation: How notes begin, connect, and end. Intonation: The accuracy of pitch. Balance: The relative loudness of musical parts. Blend: How well sounds combine within an ensemble. Tempo: The speed of the beat. Texture: The relationship among musical lines. Form: The overall organization of a musical composition. 2. CONDUCTING Conducting patterns communicate meter and coordinate performers. Two-beat pattern: Two main beats per measure. Three-beat pattern: Three main beats per measure. Four-beat pattern: Four main beats per measure. The preparatory gesture establishes the tempo and helps cue the entrance. The ictus is the focal point of a beat gesture. A cutoff gesture indicates when performers should stop producing sound. Clear gestures, consistent tempo, and appropriate eye contact help ensembles perform together. 3. TUNING AND INTONATION Tuning establishes a reference pitch. Intonation describes the accuracy of performed pitches. A sharp pitch is too high. A flat pitch is too low. Musicians should listen to one another and adjust pitch, balance, and blend. Warm-ups prepare performers physically and musically. 4. TRANSPOSING INSTRUMENTS Some instruments sound at a different pitch from the written note. B-flat trumpet: Written C sounds as B-flat. B-flat clarinet: Written C sounds as B-flat. E-flat alto saxophone: Written C sounds as E-flat. F horn: Written C sounds as F. These are standard written-to-sounding relationships for the listed instruments. SECTION 7: MUSIC EDUCATION AND PEDAGOGY 1. IMPORTANT TEACHING APPROACHES Orff Schulwerk: Uses speech, movement, improvisation, and accessible percussion instruments. Kodály: Emphasizes singing, solfege, inner hearing, and sequential musicianship. Dalcroze Eurhythmics: Uses bodily movement to experience musical concepts, particularly rhythm. Suzuki: Emphasizes listening, repetition, early instrumental learning, and family involvement. Gordon Music Learning Theory: Emphasizes audiation, the ability to hear and comprehend music internally. 2. SOLFEGE Movable-do solfege connects syllables to scale degrees. Scale degree 1 = Do Scale degree 2 = Re Scale degree 3 = Mi Scale degree 4 = Fa Scale degree 5 = Sol Scale degree 6 = La Scale degree 7 = Ti Scale degree 8 = Do In movable do, Do represents the tonic of the key. In fixed do, syllables correspond to specific note names. Hearing is the physical process of perceiving sound. Audiation is the mental process of hearing and understanding music internally. 3. LESSON PLANNING A strong music lesson includes: A clear learning objective. Activities that directly support the objective. Opportunities for guided and independent practice. Assessment to determine whether students met the objective. Feedback and adjustments for future instruction. Example objective: Students will accurately clap and identify quarter notes, eighth notes, and quarter rests in a four-beat measure. An appropriate assessment would ask students to perform or identify the rhythms. 4. TYPES OF ASSESSMENT Diagnostic assessment: Identifies what students know before instruction. Formative assessment: Checks learning during instruction and helps the teacher adjust instruction. Summative assessment: Evaluates learning after a unit or at the end of instruction. Performance assessment: Requires students to demonstrate a skill, such as singing a melody. Rubric: Defines assessment criteria and performance levels. Example: If students struggle with a rhythmic pattern during rehearsal, the teacher can model the rhythm, provide guided practice, and reassess their performance. 5. CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT AND INCLUSION Give clear instructions. Model the expected behavior. Establish routines for distributing instruments and transitioning between activities. Choose age-appropriate repertoire. Use suitable vocal and instrumental ranges. Adapt instruction to accommodate different abilities and learning needs. Provide multiple ways for students to demonstrate understanding. Give specific and constructive feedback. Maintain a respectful environment where students can participate without humiliation. 6. COPYRIGHT AND PROFESSIONAL ETHICS Copyright generally protects original musical works and sound recordings, subject to applicable law. Purchasing sheet music does not automatically grant permission to copy or distribute it. Educational use is not automatically exempt from copyright restrictions. Fair use depends on the circumstances and relevant legal factors. Use appropriately licensed scores, recordings, and digital resources. Respect student privacy and follow school policies when recording or sharing performances. Credit sources and respect creators' rights. SECTION 8: MUSIC TECHNOLOGY AND ACOUSTICS MIDI: Represents musical performance data, including notes, timing, and velocity. MIDI is not itself a recorded audio waveform. Digital audio: Represents sound using digital samples. Microphone: Converts sound into an electrical signal. Amplification: Increases the level of an audio signal. Reverberation: The persistence of sound due to reflections in an environment. Acoustics: The study of how sound behaves in spaces and environments. Frequency: Measured in hertz and related to perceived pitch. Amplitude: Describes the magnitude of a sound wave or signal and is related to perceived loudness. Timbre: The quality that helps distinguish sounds produced by different instruments or voices. Important distinction: Frequency is not the same as loudness. Higher frequency generally corresponds to higher pitch, while greater amplitude generally corresponds to greater loudness. SECTION 9: MUSICAL NOTATION AND TERMS 1. STAFF AND CLEFS Treble clef lines, from bottom to top: E, G, B, D, F. Treble clef spaces, from bottom to top: F, A, C, E. Bass clef lines, from bottom to top: G, B, D, F, A. Bass clef spaces, from bottom to top: A, C, E, G. Ledger lines extend the staff to represent pitches above or below it. 2. ADDITIONAL TERMS Enharmonic notes: Notes that sound the same in equal temperament but have different spellings, such as C-sharp and D-flat. Anacrusis: An incomplete opening measure, also called a pickup. Ostinato: A repeated musical pattern. Rubato: Expressive flexibility in tempo. Cadenza: A soloistic passage, often virtuosic, traditionally associated with a concerto. A cappella: Singing without instrumental accompaniment. Counterpoint: The combination of independent melodic lines. Basso continuo: A Baroque accompaniment practice involving a bass line and harmonic realization.

Brown v. Board of Education

Ruled that separate educational facilities are inherently unequal.

1954

The year the Brown v. Board of Education ruling was issued.

inherently unequal

A principle established by the Brown v. Board of Education ruling indicating that separate facilities cannot be equal.