Year 12 Psychology

Memory

The ability to retain and recall information or representations of past experiences over an extended period of time.

Sensation

The passive psychological process of sensory organs receiving sensory information from the environment and sending it to relevant brain structures - experiencing the world

Perception

The active psychological process involving the organisation and interpretation of sensory stimulus - observing the world

Three Stages of Sesnation

1. Reception: physical stimuli is detected by receptors in sensory organs

2. Transduction: environmental stimuli is converted into an electrochemical nerve impulse

3. Transmission: nerve impulses are sent along sensory neurons to relevant areas of the brain

Three Stages of Perception

1. Selection: our brain is selective with what reaches our attention due to the millions of stimuli entering at once

2. Organisation: storage of sensory information into relevant categories within the brain, allowing us to make sense of it

3. Interpretation: stimuli is then given meaning by comparing it to already stored information

Attention

The process of focussing on specific stimuli / aspects of our environment whether consciously or unconsciously.

Selective Attention

Choosing and attending to a singular specific stimuli whilst excluding / filtering other distracting stimuli. Can apply to important stimuli or stimuli you’re searching for, for example hearing your name may draw your selective attention away from your conversation to the other one

5 Changes in Stimulus that can Attract our Attention + Examples

• Movement: moving stimuli is more attention-grabbing than stationary stimuli - blinking light vs flickering one

• Contrast: a stimuli which is noticeably different from its surroundings will grab attention - black stain on white shirt vs white stain on white shirt

• Intensity: the same stimulus as surroundings but intensified will be more likely to grab our attention - loud noise vs quiet noise

• Size: a stimulus that is larger (and sometimes smaller) than average will be more likely to catch our attention - 6”10 man vs 5”10 man

• Duration / Repetition: A brief stimulus is less noticeable than one that persists - however those which persist too long might cause people to get used to them - one beep vs 10 in a row vs 1,000 in a row

Divided Attention + 2 Examples

The distribution of attention among two or more stimulus so that two or more activities may be completed at once (listening to a teacher and taking notes). Two complex tasks cannot be done at once, and two tasks relying on the same areas of the brain are also difficult (can’t read a book and an email at once).

Cocktail Party Effect - Theorist and Date

Cherry, 1953

Cocktail Party Effect - Theory

Accounts for the human ability to understand a conversation despite distracting stimuli surrounding

Cocktail Party Effect - 6 Factors that Influence it

• Transition probabilities - ability to interpret what words might have been said from surrounding context

• Spatial continuity - easier to understand when speaker remains stationary

• Bodily language - allows us to interpret intent and meaning easier

• Volume - easier to understand when speaker is louder than surroundings

• Visual channel effects - our brain can associate sounds with the speakers they originate from

• Continuity - when speaking with someone things such as their frequency, pitch, and accent tend to stay constant

Cocktail Party Effect - Strengths

Heightens our understanding of communication in crowded environments, supporting learning in challenging auditory contexts

Cocktail Party Effect - 2 Limitations

Becomes no longer applicable when in extremely loud environments, does not account for individual differences in auditory focus or perception

Cocktail Party Effect - 2 Applications

Group discussions in which you need to focus only on your group, loud environments such as parties, clubs, or concerts

Three Stages of Memory Processing

Encoding: The process of putting information into a form which our brain can understand

Storage: The maintainence of encoded information within a memory store in an organised fashion so that we can retrieve it easily

Retrieval: The process of temporarily transferring a memory from long-term to short-term memory in order to display it wiithin our mind and bring it to conscious attention

Multi-Store Model of Memory (Theorist and Date)

Atkinson and Schiffrin, 1968

Multi-Store Model of Memory (Model)

Sensory input stored in sensory memory, information attended to enters short-term memory (whereas information not attended to is lost rapidly), unrehearsed information in short term memory is lost, with maintainence and elaborative rehearsal bringing the information into long-term memory

Sensory Memory (Iconic and Echoic, Duration, Capacity, Encoding)

Holds a sensory register for each sense represented as an exacy copy of the original sensation.

Iconic memory: Around 0.3 seconds, keeps the world from being a blur of constant images whilst also allowing us to see movement rather than individual frames

Echoic memory: 3-4 seconds, allows us to understand sentences in full rather than a series of distinct sounds - sounds remain in echoic memory until the full context of the sentence is gained before being encoded

Theoretically infinite in size, though very temporary. Information is encoded into short-term memory if the stimulus is paid attention to.

Short-Term Memory (Duration, Capacity, Encoding)

Holds all thoughts, infomration, and experiences that we are aware of at any given time. Can hold 5-9 pieces of information for 12-30 seconds. Any information in short-term that is not rehearsed will not enter long-term memory and will drop out of the model.

Long-Term Memory (Duration, Capacity, Encoding)

Allows for information to be stored theoretically forever in a theoretically enless capacity. Information is encoded by its meaning and stored in semantic networks (a hierarchical pattern of nodes with links between)

Procedural Memory

The long-term memory store that stores our knowledge on how to complete tasks or actions with little to no conscious effort. Procedural memories are very resistent to forgetting.

Declarative Memory

The long-term memory store for explicit, specific, or factual information (i.e. names, faces, words, dates, rules) and events. They require conscious effort for retrieval, and are generally more complex.

Semantic Memory

A subsect of declarative memory dfocussed on the storage and inrerpretation of facts and information

Episodic Memory

A subsect of declarative memory involved in the internal represenatation and storage of events and experiences

Multi-Store Memory Model - 2 Strengths

Provided the groundwork that inspired much more in-depth research into memory, as well as being the basis of more complex theories.

Multi-Store Memory Model - 2 Limitations

Displays a rather oversimplified view on memory, with modern research suggesting that memory is far more complex.
Does not account for factors such as strategic learning and motivation when considering transfer of information between STM and LTM.

Multi-Store Memory Model - Applications

Allows us to understand how to improve our memory in certain situations, such as remembering a scene of a crime in order to assist investigators through rehearsal.

May also have appplication in helping dementia patients - if they have trouble rehearsing information they could write it down or label things to reinforce connections in memory.

Working Memory Model (Theorists, Date)

Baddeley and Hitch, 1974

Working Memory Model - Key Features, Active or Passive?

A hypothetical construct which attempts to describe the process of memory and how visual and verbal material is processed and stored. The theory emphasises the active nature of short-term memory as opposed to previous theories stating it was passively maintained

Central Executive: 3 Main Functions

• Inhibition: Screening out of unwanted stimulus (selection in the MSM)

• Switching: Changing our attention from one thing to another

• Updating: Modifying items from LTM before re-committing them

Phonological Loop + Subsections

Auditory working memory, allows us to understand sentences that are longer than a few words - it retains the information from the beginning of a sentence until we have heard the words from the end.

The phonological store processes speech perception, and stores auditory information for 1-2 seconds, acting as an inner ear.

The articulatory control process acts as this structures maintenance rehearsal, keeping information in the phonological store by repeating it. It also converts written material into auditory information that the phonological store can interpret.

Visuospatial Sketchpad

Visual working memory store responsible for storing and encoding visual language, as well as imagining what things might look like (our imaginatiion)

Episodic Bufffer

Takes information out of long-term memory and sends it to the central executive, and trsnsfers information back into long-term memory, bridges the two stores. It also unifies information from the visuospatial sketchpad and phonological loop to create a single unified memory, or ‘episode’, for episodic long-term memory.

Working Memory Model - 2 Strengths

It expands on the simple theory of the multi-store model of memory.

It explains individual processes such as verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem solving, and visual / spatial processing.

Working Memory Model - 2 Limitations

Does not account for blind people - the presence of the visuospatial sketchpad states that all spatial information was once visual, however blind people have excellent sptaial awareness. It also does not account for the entire system of memory, only focussing on short-term.

Working Memory Model - Applications

A correlation between high-achieving academics and high working memory capacity has been identified. Therefore, it can be theorised that low-achieving students struggle due to lower working memory capacity. Also explains why listening to lyrical music decreases effectiveness in study, as the lyrical information mixes up wiith the factual information being learned. It also takes conscious effort on the part of the central executive to ignore the music.

Hippocampus in Memory Formation

Has a major role in the formation and consolidation of long-term declarative memories, as well as the retrieval of them. New memories are formed via cell reproduction.

After the memories are formed they are consolidated into more relevant areas of the cerebral cortex during sleep.

Henry Molaison

A key figure in case studies who had his amygdala removed. His newly-formed amnesia showed psychologists the role that certain brain structures have in the consolidation of long-term memories, as well as revealing the distinction between types of memories, as he was able to learn new skills but unable to learn new facts or information.

Cerebellum in Memory Formation

Works with the motor cortex to form motor memories. Procedural memories are encoded, processed, and stored here. The cerebellum activates the relevant neural pathways on its own when the procedural memory is needed to complete an action, allowing us to complete these actions automatically.

Amygdala in Memory Formation

Attaches emotional significance to memories, with memories with strong emotional associations being difficult to forget - fear especially is extremely difficult to forget, with fearful memories being fully encoded after just a few rehearsals.

Retrieval Failure

This theory suggests that we forget things due to the neccessary memory cues not being present, stating that the memory we seek is still in our brain, just that the relevant neural pathways can’t be accessed. The tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon stems from this, where we might feel we know a piece of information but we can’t access it. This theory opposes decay theory.

Proactive Interference

The tendency for people to struggle with learning new information due to previously learned and similar information conflicting with it (i.e. struggling to learn a new phone number after using your old one for years)

Retroactive Interference

The tendency for people to struggle with recalling old information due to interference of newly learned similar material (i.e. after having a new phone number for a few years you will find it difficult to recall your last one)

Motivated Forgetting

The process of consciously or unconsciously intentioally forgetting material with the goal of reducing stress, anxiety, or the impacts of severe trauma.

Suppression

The act of consciously forgetting memories by avoiding stimulus which might remind one of the event and pretending it didn’t happen

Repression

The unconscious forgetting of a memory. Harmful thoughts, experiences, and feelings are unconsciously pushed to the back of our mind in order to allow us to function at a relatively healthy state

Decay Theory

Proposes that memories which are not strengthened decay over time. Inactive neural pathways which hold memories weaken without use, limiting our ability to recall information. This theory opposes retrieval failure theory.

Free Recall (Definition + Example)

Utilised when people need to recall as many items of information as possible in no particular order (e.g. a shopping list)

Serial Recall (Definition + Example)

Recalling information in the order in which it was initially presented (e.g. the digits of pi)

Cued Recall (Definition + Example)

The utilisation of various prompts in order to recall information (e.g. thinking of the first letter of a name to recall the entire name)

Recognition (Definition + Example)

The ability to identify correct information when it is surrounded by incorrect information (e.g. a multiple choice quiz)

Relearning (Definition + Example)

When learning information which has been previously encoded but left unused the process of encoding that information again is faster (e.g. relearning a foreign language which hasn’t been used in years)

The Levels of Processing Model of Memory - Theorists and Date

Craik and Lockhart, 1972

The Levels of Processing Model of Memory - Theory

Argues that memory is not made up of specific and seperate stores, rather that it is a continuous dimension where the ease at which we recall information depends on the depth at which that memory is processed.

Structural Processing + Example

Pieces of information are encoded based off their physical / visual features (e.g. letters in a word). Shallow processing.

Phonemic Processing + Example

Pieces of information are encoded based off their sounds / auditory properties (e.g. memorising words based off how they rhyme). Shallow processing.

Semantic Processing + Example

Pieces of information are encoded based off of their meaning (e.g. creating a mental image associating two words). Deep processing.

Maintenance Rehearsal

Repeating information to commit it to short-term memory for an extended period, and - provided there are no interruptions - it can commit information to long-term memory. Applies to shallow processing.

Elaborative Rehearsal

Creates associations between newly learned information and previously learned information, which enhances long-term memory retention. Applies to deep processing.

The Levels of Processing Model of Memory - 4 Strengths

• Expands on the methods of rehearsal set up by the MSM

• Showed that encoding and long-term memory is not a simple process / strucure

• It explains why we remember some things longer than others

• Can be applied to daily life and provides methods which can improve our memory

The Levels of Processing Model of Memory - 4 Limitations

• Fails to explain how / why deeper processing results in stronger memories

• Since deeper processing takes greater effort, it could be the effort taken to process memory rather than the process itself that strengthens memories

• The concept of ‘depth’ cannot be observed or measured due to its vagueness

• Other psychologists have stated that it ‘describes rather than explains’

The Levels of Processing Model of Memory - 3 Applications

The model can be applied to help us strengthen memories in the following ways:

• Reworking: putting information into our own words or discussing it with someone else

• Method of Loci: linking each item in a list with a familiar location / route

• Imagery: creating an image to be associated with the information causes it to be elaborated upon and encoded visually

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Researchers + Date

Craik and Tulving, 1975

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Aim

To investigate how deep and shallow processing affects memory recall.

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Hypothesis

It is hypothesised that the [sample group] will recall a greater number of words that were semantically processed than those structurally processed.

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Variables

IV: Deep and shallow levels of processing

DV: Number of words recalled

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Method

All participants were given a list of 60 words, each with a question attached. The question would require the participant to process the word in a deep or shallow way. For example:

• Structural processing: is the word in capital or lowercase letters?

• Phonemic processing: does the word rhyme with …?

• Semantic processing: does the word fit in tbe following sentence?

Afterwards they were given a list of 180 words, with the original words mixed in. They were then asked to identify which, out of these words, were part of the original list.

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Findings

Participants were able to recall words that were semantically processed at a higher rate than those processed shallowly.

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Contributions

Reinforces the validity of the levels of processing theory

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - Strengths

Depth of Processing and the Retention of Words in Episodic Memory - 3 Limitations

Lacks ecological validity as it only tests structural processing through words. Structural processing may be more useful for recalling an image, for example.

It is unclear whether the level of processing is actually the cause of higher recall or if time is the significant factor, as, logically, forming a sentence takes more time than noting the colour of a word, giving the information more time to encode.

The test also used recognition recall, which would have made it far easier for participants to be reminded of the words, as well as allowing them to guess - free recall should have been measured to test how much was actually retained in long-term memory

The Forgetting Curve: Theorist + Date

Ebbinghaus, 1885

The Forgetting Curve: Definition

A graphical representation of the process of forgetting. The steeper the curve, the more we are forgetting. It demonstrates how much we forget if no particular effort is made to encode the information, and it shows how more information is retained for longer after we revise it. Research shows that a minimum of three reviews of information is requires for the best retention.

The Forgetting Curve: Spaced Repetition

Ebbinghaus believed that for repetitions to be impactful they needed to be spaced. Reviewing information after an hour is not particularly useful, as the memories need a chance to decay first. When the brain reviews information that has decayed, it reconstructs that information and strengthens the neural pathway.

Factors that Influence Forgetting: Prior Knowledge

We are more likely to remember newly learned information if it is connected to previously learned info (e.g. learning more about the functions of brain structures we have already learned about)

Factors that Influence Forgetting: Meaningfulness to the Subject

If the information learned is meaningful or significant, then it will be more likely to be remembered (e.g. learning about a significant family death)

Factors that Influence Forgetting: Complexity of the Material

We are less likely to remember complex information, especially if it is confusingly complex and if it does not connect to our prior knowledge (e.g. learning about a new math equation which makes no sense)

Factors that Influence Forgetting: How the Information is Presented

If the information is presented in clear and digestible forms such as stories or repetitions we will be more likely to remember it (e.g. learning about a new concept by reading through a report written in 1800’s English makes us less likely to remember it)

Factors that Influence Forgetting: Individual Capabilities

Genetics can play a role in our memory capabilities.

Factors that Influence Forgetting: Physiological Factors

Our physiological state can lead to better or worse memory capabilities in general (e.g. having poor sleep and being tired makes us less able to encode information)

Factors that Influence Forgetting: Psychological Factors

Our psychological state has a major influence on our ability to encode and remember information (e.g. being stressed or anxious negatively impacts our ability to form and store memories)

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: 3 Strengths

It was one of the first studies on memory and provided a basis for future studies and theories

It has significant practical applications in learning

His findings were corroborated by future studies

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: 3 Limitations

The percentages provided by the forgetting curve should not be given as indisputable evidence due to them relying on multiple factors

It provides unreliable statistics and should just be taken as an informative theory

Ebbinghaus tested only himself meaning the results cannot be generalised

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: Applications

The forgetting curve has huge implications on learning of all kinds - whether that be through the education system, through learning a new task and training an employee, or through personal learning and hobbies.

CTE (Full Name)

Chronic Traumatic Encephalopathy

CTE - Definition

A progressive brain degeneration and fatal condition caused by repetitive trauma to the brain via concussions and sub-concussions.

Concussion

A traumatic brain injury caused by a blow to the head or a hit on the body which causes the brain to move rapidly back and forth within the skull.

Sub-concussions

Cause brain cell damage without the immediately noticeable symptoms of concussions, making them harder to recognise and treat.

CTE - 8 Symptoms + Progression of Symptoms

Symptoms may not appear until years after injury, and begin mild before progressing to severity. They include:

• Loss of memory

• Mood changes

• Personality changes

• Lack of impulse control

• Erratic behaviour

• Confusion and disorientation

• Impaired judgement and decision-making

• Motor impairments

CTE - Diagnosis

It cannot be properly diagnosed until after death during an autopsy of the brain. Even then, it is difficult to 100% determine if a patient has CTE. An abnormal buildup of tau is found during autopsies, which interferes with neural networks.

Alzheimer’s Disease - Definition

A type of dementia characterised by the gradual widespread degeneration of brain neurons, causing memory deficiency and deteriorating cognitive / social abilities

Alzheimer’s Disease - Early Stages + 7 Symptoms

• The outer layer of the brain is first affected, causing loss of short-term memory

• Early symptoms include:

  • Deficits in some areas of action

  • Moderate memory loss (particularly for recent events)

  • General confusion

  • Irritability

  • Decreased social capacity

  • Decreased interest in hobbies

  • Needing to be reminded of basic tasks

Alzheimer’s Disease - Late Stages + 3 Symptoms

• As the disease progresses to deeper areas of the brain, long-term memory begins to be affected

• Implicit memories tend to remain intact, though this depends on the areas of the brain where the disease is most effective

• In the late stages, the patient may:

  • Forget their own identity or the identities of family members / carers

  • Likely experience severe personality changes

Alzheimer’s Disease - Diagnosis

There is currently no single diagnostic test for Alzheimers, and it can only be confirmed after death in an autopsy. Most diagnoses are made based off symptoms.

Alzheimer’s Disease - Biological Cause

Alzheimer’s is thought to be caused by the abnormal interaction between two proteins: beta-amyloid and tau.

Beta-amyloid clumps together in the brains of patients, where a regular brain breaks it dow naturally, forming plaques which affect communication between brain cells.

Tau proteins, which usually carry nutrients and other essential materials for the brain, change shape and organise into neurofibrillary tangles, which disrupt the brains transport system and eventually kill neurons.

Alzheimer’s Disease - 6 Treatments

Whilst there is no cure for Alzheimer’s, there are a number of treatments which can ease the process and aid the quality of life of patients:

• Drugs that administer acetylcholine (ACh) in the early / middle stages of the disease can aid the efficiency of damaged neurons, slowing the rate of development for primary symptoms

• Cholinesterate inhibitors may decrease symptoms related to behaviour, such as agitation or depression

• Lifestyle changes to avoid tasks that rely on memory:

  • Keep photos and memorabilia around the house that may keep memories strong

  • Keep valuables in a consistent place

  • Keep medicine secured and ensure the correct dosage is taken daily

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome - Definition

Two distinct but overlapping disorders that stem from a lack of thiamine (vitamin B-1), typically due to alcohol or drug abuse.

Wernicke-Korsakoff Syndrome - Progression Wernicke → Korsakoff + Stat

The disease begins with Wernicke syndrome, and if left untreated it can lead to the irreversible Korsakoff syndrome. Patients which experience an overlap of symptoms from both Wernicke and Korsakoff syndrome are diagnosed with WKS.

Approximately 80-90% of individuals diagnosed with Wernicke syndrome will eventually develop Korsakoff syndrome.

Wernicke Syndrome - 9 Symptoms

• Drowsiness

• Innatentiveness

• Lethargy

• Indifference

• Gait ataxia - slow, unsteady gait, eventually may require assistance when walking

• Double vision

• Rapid, involuntary eye movements (nystagmus)

• Paralysis of certain eye muscles (ophthalmoplegia)

• Rarely, drooping of upper eyelids (ptosis)