Studied by 2 People
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motivational theory
suggests that motivation among people originates from the interrelationships of behavioral, biological, and evolutionary forces
learning theory
current behavior is affected by previous experiences
cognitive theory
role of current perceptions of social situations; our brain categorizes people & objects in the social world
decision-making theory
logical, reasoned, rational thinking about decisions; uses cost/benefit analysis
developmental theories
changes in brain structure, experiences, knowledge over lifespan influence social life
sociocultural theories
focuses on how diverse social/cultural backgrounds affect people
evolutionary theories
focuses primarily on psychological adaptations: mechanisms of the mind that have evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction
scientific/empirical approach
An approach to knowledge that emphasizes empirical processes, testable hypotheses, systematic and controlled observation of operationally defined phenomena, "data collection using accurate & precise instrumentation, valid & reliable measures", & objective reporting of the results
characteristics of a good research question
-objective
-testable
-innovative
-specific
-feasible
independent variable
The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.
dependent variable
The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.
alternative hypothesis
what you expect to find
null hypothesis
assuming no finding
sampling
process by which participants are selected; should be representative, unbiased, and large enough to detect an effect
objective measurement
-participant observation
-biomedical tests or samples
-official records
subjective measurement
-self-reported surveys
-first-hand accounts of events/phenomena
-personal records
quanitative measurements
constructs in numbers & uses statistics to analyze data
qualitative measurement
open-ended questions that focus on narrative descriptions, & analyzes themes
internal validity
extent to which a study provides good evidence that the independent variable is affected/correlated with the dependent
external validity
extent to which study findings generalize to other situations/populations
sources of bias in research
-researcher can be biased towards results they want or expect
-participants can be biased toward what they think the study is about
-sample can be biased if not representative of population studying
correlational studies
examine/observe relationships between variables
experimental studies
randomly assign participants to different conditions with different levels of the independent variable
advantages of correlational research
does not manipulate or create changes in any variables
disadvantages of correlational research
-only measures variables
-can have reverse causality
-can have unmeasured variables
advantages of experimental research
-useful to determine causality
-can use multiple methods
-lab study can control environment
disadvantages of experimental research
-not always practical or ethical
ethical considerations
Issues of research that take into account the welfare of participants
replication
when the original study is repeated by other investigators in other labs
self-concept
all individuals beliefs & perceptions about themselves & their own attributes
self-perception theory
theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs
facial feedback hypothesis
emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify
self comparison theory
when we are unsure of how to evaluate ourself, we use others to compare to
upward comparison
comparing yourself with a person who ranks higher than you on some dimension
downward comparison
comparing yourself with a person who ranks lower than you on some dimension
bias blind spot
we're biases to think that we're not biased
above average effect
people who believe that they are doing better than others
egocentric bias
"everyone's looking at me"
-also known as the spotlight effect
P.T. Barnum effect
tendency of people to accept descriptions that apply to almost everyone as applying specifically to them
barnum blue
-emotionally driven
-seeks harmony in groups
-enthusiastic
-creative
-sympathetic
barnum gold
-loyalty driven
-respects rules & authority
-responsible
-organized
-appreciative
barnum orange
-short-term drive
-welcomes change & variety
-adventurous
-competitive
-impulsive
barnum green
-logically driven
-independent thinker
-focused
-efficient
-analytical
INTRAgroup
focus on differences between self & other group members (see yourself more as an individual)
INTERgroup
focus on self as similar to group & group members (see yourself more as a group member)
self-esteem
one's feelings of high or low self-worth
impression management
the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen
self-monitoring
being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression
self-discrepancy theory
theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves. Falling short of these standards produces specific emotions: dejection-related emotions for actual-ideal discrepancies, and agitation-related emotions for actual-ought discrepancies
social cognition
consists of the ensemble of mental processes that are specifically attuned to perceiving, understanding, & interacting with other people
steps to social cognition
-gathering information
-deciding what information to use
-integrating information into judgment