social psych exam 1

motivational theory

suggests that motivation among people originates from the interrelationships of behavioral, biological, and evolutionary forces

learning theory

current behavior is affected by previous experiences

cognitive theory

role of current perceptions of social situations; our brain categorizes people & objects in the social world

decision-making theory

logical, reasoned, rational thinking about decisions; uses cost/benefit analysis

developmental theories

changes in brain structure, experiences, knowledge over lifespan influence social life

sociocultural theories

focuses on how diverse social/cultural backgrounds affect people

evolutionary theories

focuses primarily on psychological adaptations: mechanisms of the mind that have evolved to solve specific problems of survival or reproduction

scientific/empirical approach

An approach to knowledge that emphasizes empirical processes, testable hypotheses, systematic and controlled observation of operationally defined phenomena, "data collection using accurate & precise instrumentation, valid & reliable measures", & objective reporting of the results

characteristics of a good research question

-objective

-testable

-innovative

-specific

-feasible

independent variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

dependent variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

alternative hypothesis

what you expect to find

null hypothesis

assuming no finding

sampling

process by which participants are selected; should be representative, unbiased, and large enough to detect an effect

objective measurement

-participant observation

-biomedical tests or samples

-official records

subjective measurement

-self-reported surveys

-first-hand accounts of events/phenomena

-personal records

quanitative measurements

constructs in numbers & uses statistics to analyze data

qualitative measurement

open-ended questions that focus on narrative descriptions, & analyzes themes

internal validity

extent to which a study provides good evidence that the independent variable is affected/correlated with the dependent

external validity

extent to which study findings generalize to other situations/populations

sources of bias in research

-researcher can be biased towards results they want or expect

-participants can be biased toward what they think the study is about

-sample can be biased if not representative of population studying

correlational studies

examine/observe relationships between variables

experimental studies

randomly assign participants to different conditions with different levels of the independent variable

advantages of correlational research

does not manipulate or create changes in any variables

disadvantages of correlational research

-only measures variables

-can have reverse causality

-can have unmeasured variables

advantages of experimental research

-useful to determine causality

-can use multiple methods

-lab study can control environment

disadvantages of experimental research

-not always practical or ethical

ethical considerations

Issues of research that take into account the welfare of participants

replication

when the original study is repeated by other investigators in other labs

self-concept

all individuals beliefs & perceptions about themselves & their own attributes

self-perception theory

theory that when our attitudes and feelings are uncertain or ambiguous, we infer these states by observing our behavior and the situation in which it occurs

facial feedback hypothesis

emotional expressions can cause the emotional experiences they signify

self comparison theory

when we are unsure of how to evaluate ourself, we use others to compare to

upward comparison

comparing yourself with a person who ranks higher than you on some dimension

downward comparison

comparing yourself with a person who ranks lower than you on some dimension

bias blind spot

we're biases to think that we're not biased

above average effect

people who believe that they are doing better than others

egocentric bias

"everyone's looking at me"

-also known as the spotlight effect

P.T. Barnum effect

tendency of people to accept descriptions that apply to almost everyone as applying specifically to them

barnum blue

-emotionally driven

-seeks harmony in groups

-enthusiastic

-creative

-sympathetic

barnum gold

-loyalty driven

-respects rules & authority

-responsible

-organized

-appreciative

barnum orange

-short-term drive

-welcomes change & variety

-adventurous

-competitive

-impulsive

barnum green

-logically driven

-independent thinker

-focused

-efficient

-analytical

INTRAgroup

focus on differences between self & other group members (see yourself more as an individual)

INTERgroup

focus on self as similar to group & group members (see yourself more as a group member)

self-esteem

one's feelings of high or low self-worth

impression management

the attempt by people to get others to see them as they want to be seen

self-monitoring

being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one's performance to create the desired impression

self-discrepancy theory

theory that behavior is motivated by standards reflecting ideal and ought selves. Falling short of these standards produces specific emotions: dejection-related emotions for actual-ideal discrepancies, and agitation-related emotions for actual-ought discrepancies

social cognition

consists of the ensemble of mental processes that are specifically attuned to perceiving, understanding, & interacting with other people

steps to social cognition

-gathering information

-deciding what information to use

-integrating information into judgment

mood-congruent memory

the tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current good or bad mood

dual process theory

we can make judgements in a careful, systematic way or in a rapid, effortless way

schemas

organized, structured set cognitions, thoughts, or ideas about concept/stimulus

-can include knowledge, associations, examples

script

schema about a well-known situation

advantages of schemas

-helps process, organize interpret, & evaluate info quickly

-helps remember & recall better

-helps fill in missing information in a situation & interpret ambiguous situations

disadvantages of schemas

-can lead to errors & biases

-tend to accept information that fits & ignore information that contradicts

-often unwilling to change even if faced with a lot of contradicting information

-leads to stereotyping

primacy effect

activated first/early on & continued use later

-example: start by organizing

recency effect

recently activated/used for something else & then used again even if not related & without awreness

heuristics

Mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that often lead to a solution (but not always).