Kidney Function and Structure: Filtration, Hormones, and Pathologies, Cardiovascular System: ECG, Heart Diseases, and Blood Pressure Regulation

What is the main function of the kidney?

Filtration of extra fluid, ions, substances, and glucose into urine for urine production.

What hormone stimulates bone marrow to produce red blood cells?

Erythropoietin.

What enzyme converts angiotensinogen into angiotensin I?

Renin.

What is the role of angiotensin II?

Acts as a vasoconstrictor and stimulates aldosterone secretion.

What does aldosterone do?

Binds to collecting tubule receptors to reabsorb NaCl and H2O, and excrete H+ and K+ into urine.

What is the difference between reabsorption, excretion, and secretion in kidney function?

Reabsorption is the uptake of filtered substances, excretion is the elimination of substances into urine, and secretion is the release of hormones.

Describe the structure of the kidney.

It consists of an external capsule, renal pelvis, renal medulla, renal column, pyramid, cortex, and calyx.

What is the pathway of urine from the kidney to the urinary bladder?

Kidney → Ureters → Urinary Bladder → Urethra.

What is the structure of a nephron?

U-shaped Bowman capsule, glomerular capillaries, proximal tubule, loop of Henle, distal tubule, and collecting tubule.

Which hormones have receptors in the collecting tubule?

ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone) and aldosterone.

What is the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) for men and women?

120 ml/min for men and 115 ml/min for women.

How much fluid is typically filtered by the kidneys per day?

180 liters per day.

What percentage of filtered fluid is reabsorbed by the peritubular capillary?

95%.

What is the normal range for blood glucose?

70-120 mg/dL.

What is hyperglycemia?

Blood glucose levels above 250 mg/dL.

What percentage of filtered Na+ is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule?

67%.

What are the two types of cells in the collecting and distal tubule?

Principal Cells and Alpha Intercalated Cells.

What do Principal Cells do?

Reabsorb Na+ and H2O while secreting K+ and hydrogen ions.

What is the role of Alpha Intercalated Cells?

Involved in the antiport of K+ and H+ ions, secreting H+ while reabsorbing K+.

What factors influence potassium excretion in the kidneys?

Dietary K+, aldosterone levels, and acid-base balance.

What happens in hyperaldosteronism?

Increased K+ secretion into urine.

What effect does acidosis have on potassium excretion?

Acidosis decreases potassium (K+) excretion.

What effect does alkalosis have on potassium excretion?

Alkalosis increases potassium (K+) excretion.

What percentage of filtered urea is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule?

50% of filtered urea is reabsorbed passively in the proximal tubule.

How does ADH affect urea permeability?

ADH increases urea permeability of inner medullary collecting ducts.

What is the percentage of filtered phosphate reabsorbed in the proximal tubule?

85% of filtered phosphate is reabsorbed in the proximal tubule.

What hormone inhibits phosphate reabsorption?

Parathyroid hormone (PTH) inhibits phosphate reabsorption.

What is the role of PTH in calcium reabsorption?

PTH increases calcium reabsorption in the kidneys.

Where is most magnesium absorption done?

Most magnesium absorption occurs in the proximal tubule.

What condition causes increased magnesium excretion?

Hypercalcemia causes an increase in magnesium excretion.

What is the urine osmolarity after reabsorption in the proximal tubule?

The urine osmolarity is approximately 300 mOsm/L after reabsorption in the proximal tubule.

What is the urine osmolarity in the Loop of Henle?

The urine osmolarity in the Loop of Henle is about 100 mOsm/L.

What is glomerulonephritis?

Glomerulonephritis is the inflammation and infection of the Bowman capsule.

What are the signs of hypertension related to kidney issues?

Signs include headache, vomiting, and nose bleeding.

What is the primary cause of pyelonephritis?

90% of pyelonephritis cases are caused by Escherichia coli (E. coli).

What are kidney stones primarily caused by?

Kidney stones can be caused by high PTH leading to hypercalcemia and citrate deficiency.

What is the treatment for kidney stones?

Treatment includes calcium channel blockers and non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

What happens during metabolic acidosis?

The lungs eliminate CO2 and kidneys excrete more H+ to decrease acidity.

What occurs during metabolic alkalosis?

Kidneys excrete less H+ and lungs hypoventilate to retain CO2, adjusting acid levels.

What is the role of angiotensin II in acid-base balance?

Angiotensin II stimulates aldosterone secretion, which increases H+ excretion.

What is the function of aquaporin 2 in the kidneys?

Aquaporin 2 acts as a channel that allows fluid to pass through the cell membrane for fluid retention.

What is the normal calcium range in the blood?

The normal calcium range is 10 mg/dl.

What is the purpose of ECG electrodes V1 and V2?

They detect the function of the right ventricle.

What do electrodes V3 and V4 monitor?

They detect the function of the interventricular septum and lateral wall of the left ventricle.

What areas do electrodes V5 and V6 assess?

They detect the anterior wall and lateral wall of the left ventricle.

Where is electrode V1 placed?

On the fourth intercostal space to the right of the sternum.

What is a common cause of Myocardial Infarction?

Atherosclerosis, hypercholesteremia, smoking, hypertension, stress, and diabetes.

What are some symptoms of Myocardial Infarction?

Pain in the mid-chest, left arm, shoulder, forearm, and symptoms like cold sweating, anxiety, coughing, and dyspnea.

What blood tests indicate a Myocardial Infarction?

Increased troponin I and T, lactate, dehydrogenase, and myoglobin.

What does an elevated ST segment indicate on an EKG?

It may indicate a Myocardial Infarction.

What medication can be given to a patient experiencing a Myocardial Infarction?

Aspirin, which acts as a vasorelaxator, and nitroglycerin for fast absorption.

What is Endocarditis?

An inflammation of the inside lining of the heart chambers and valves, often due to bacterial infection.

What are the symptoms of Endocarditis?

Chills, fatigue, fever, headache, joint or muscle pain, and paleness.

How is Endocarditis treated?

With long-term high-dose antibiotic therapy for 4-6 weeks.

What is Mitral Stenosis?

A condition where the mitral valve cannot completely open, leading to blood accumulation in the left atrium.

What are the symptoms of Mitral Stenosis?

Difficulty breathing, edema, retrosternal pain, palpitations, and fatigue.

What is a treatment option for Mitral Stenosis?

Anticoagulants like heparin or surgical options like balloon valvotomy.

What is Mitral Regurgitation?

A condition where the mitral valve does not close completely, causing blood to flow back into the left atrium.

What are common symptoms of Mitral Regurgitation?

Pulmonary hypertension, pulmonary edema, cough, fatigue, and palpitations.

What is the role of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System?

It regulates blood volume and pressure through hormonal mechanisms.

What triggers the release of ADH?

High osmotic pressure in the blood, often due to dehydration.

What is the function of Atrial Natriuretic Peptide (ANP)?

It decreases blood pressure by acting as a vasorelaxator and inhibiting renin and aldosterone.

What is the function of baroreceptors?

They detect changes in blood pressure and help regulate it through the sympathetic nervous system.

What happens during acute blood loss in relation to baroreceptors?

They stimulate vasoconstriction to increase total peripheral resistance (TPR) and maintain blood pressure.

What is the primary function of capillaries?

Gas exchange and absorption of nutrients, fluids, gases, and waste excretion.

What is the role of the lymphatic system?

It accumulates extra fluid and drains it into the venous system.

What can cause severe edema in the lymphatic system?

Bacterial, viral, fungal infections, or congenital issues.