anatomy and physiology sem 1 final

anatomy and physiology

levels of structural organization

chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, human body

chemical level

atoms, molecules

cellular level

blood cells, muscle cells

tissue level

similar cells performing a certain function (connective and nervous tissue)

organ level

brain, heart, bones

organ system level

digestive system

homeostasis

maintaining relatively stable internal conditions even though the outside world changes continuously

receptor

a sensor that monitors the environment and detects stimuli; information is sent to the control center

control center (brain)

analyzes and determines the set point; information is sent to the effector

effector (muscle or gland)

carries out the control center’s response to the stimulus; responds to get body back into homeostasis

receptor to control center is a ____

afferent pathway (approach)

control center to effector is a ____

efferent pathway (exit)

stimuli

any change in your environment

positive feedback loop

enhances the original stimulus so that further responses are greater; same direction as the initial change

negative feedback loop

shuts down the original effect of the stimulus or reduces its intensity; opposite direction as the initial change

examples of a positive feedback loop

childbirth and blood clotting

examples of a negative feedback loop

body temperature increasing or decreasing, blood sugar, and blood pressure

sagittal plane

splits the body left and right

frontal plane

splits the body into front (anterior) and back (posterior)

transverse plane

splits the body into top (superior) and bottom (inferior)

anatomical position

body is erect with feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, and thumbs pointing away from the body

superior

towards the head end or upper part of the body; above

inferior

away from the head end or towards the lower part of the body; below

ventral

towards or at the front of the body; in front

dorsal

towards or at the back of the body; behind

medial

towards or at the midline of the body; on the inner side

lateral

away from the midline of the body; on the outer side

superficial

towards or at the surface of the body

deep

away from the surface of the body; more internal

dorsal cavity

contains the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord)

ventral

contains the thoracic cavity (lungs, esophagus, trachea, and heart) and abdominopelvic cavity (stomach, intestines, spleen, liver, urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and rectum)

organic compound

any compound composed of atoms (some of which are carbon) held together by covalent (shared electron) bonds; made by living things

examples of organic compounds

proteins, fats, and carbohydrates

inorganic compound

chemical substances that do not contain carbon

examples of inorganic compounds

ex: water, salts, and many acids and base

what’s the difference between inorganic and organic compounds?

Organic compounds always contain carbon, typically bonded to hydrogen, but inorganic compounds lack C-H bonds.

monomer

single molecules that can chemically bond with either identical or different molecules to form larger structures known as polymers; smaller units in polymerization

what process occurs in order for monomers to be linked together?

synthesis and dehydration

synthesis

adding

dehydration

removing water that was previously combined

what process occurs when bonds between monomers are broken?

decomposition and hydrolysis

hydrolysis

adding water to break bonds

which elements would be removed from given monomers during dehydration synthesis?

H₂O

function of carbs

protection from trauma, insulation, stored energy, and has cell membrane components

monomer of a carb

monosaccharide (glucose)

two carb monomers linked together

disaccharide (lactose or sucrose)

polymer of a carb

polysaccharide (cellulose p, starch p, and glycogen h)

elemental makeup of a carb

carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen in a 1:2:1 ratio

examples of carbs

fruits, grains, vegetables, dairy

function of a protein

structural purpose and the main source of usable stored energy

monomer of a protein

amino acid

polymer of a protein

polypeptide

elemental makeup of a protein

central carbon, carbonoxyl group, and amine group with changing “R” group

what are the types of lipids?

triglycerides (most common), phospholipids, steroids, eicosanoids

function of triglycerides

major form of stored energy in the body

elemental makeup of triglycerides

fatty acids and glycerol in a 3:1 ratio

regions of triglycerides

fat deposits (beneath the skin and around organs) protect and insulate body organs

functions of phospholipids

chief components of cell membranes and help transport lipids in blood

elemental makeup of phospholipids

two fatty acid chains with a phosphate group with an attached nitrogen containing group

fatty acid tails…

make one end nonpolar and hydrophobic

fatty acid “head”…

is polar and hydrophilic

functions of steroids

vital to homeostasis, components of cell membranes

elemental makeup of steroids

flat molecules made up of four interlocking hydrocarbon rings; fat soluble and contain little oxygen

The single most important molecule in our steroid chemistry is…

cholesterol

function of eicosanoids

found in all cell membranes, help with various body functions such as blood clotting, blood pressure, inflammation, and labor contractions

elemental makeup of eicosanoids

20-carbon fatty acid

saturated fats

molecules are packed closely together forming solid @ room temp

unsaturated fats

molecules can’t pack together closely to solidify

what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

Saturated have fatty acids that contain covalent bonds, unsaturated have fatty acids that are missing hydrogen and contain one double bond (bend) of carbon.

which fat is healthier for you?

Unsaturated fats because they don’t solidify at room temp and they are liquid so it is easier to move through blood vessels.

denatured proteins

proteins unfold and lose their specific three-dimensional shape

what causes proteins to denature?

a decrease in pH or temperature rises

How enzymes allow chemical reactions to occur at normal body temperatures:

The presence of specific enzymes determines not only which reactions will be speeded up, but also which reactions will occur—no enzyme, no reaction. This also means that unwanted or unnecessary chemical reactions do not occur.

acids are ____ on a pH scale

lower

bases are ____ on a pH scale

higher

water is ____ on a pH scale

neutral

active transport

requires energy (ATP), low to high concentration

passive transport

doesn’t require energy (ATP), high to low concentration

diffusion

passive transport, no protein, small molecules, nonpolar molecules

osmosis

passive transport, H₂O crossing, needs an aquaporin (protein)

facilitated diffusion

passive transport, proteins needed (channels), large, charged molecules

epithelial tissue

a sheet of cells that covers a body surface or lines a body cavity

simple squamous function

allows materials to pass by diffusion and filtration in sites where protection is not important

simple squamous location

kidney glomeruli, air sacs of lungs, lining of heart, blood vessels and lymphatic vessels, serosae

simple cuboidal function

secretion and absorption

simple cuboidal location

kidney tubules, ducts, and secretory portions of small glands, ovary surface

simple columnar function

absorption; secretion of mucus, enzymes, and other substances; ciliated type propels mucus by ciliary action; filtration

simple columnar location (ciliated)

lines small bronchi, uterine tubes, and some regions of the uteru

simple columnar location (nonciliated)

lines the digestive tract, gallbladder and excretory ducts of some glands

pseudostratified columnar function

secrete substances, particularly mucus; propulsion of mucus by ciliary action

pseudostratified columnar location (ciliated)

lines the trachea and most of the upper respiratory tract

pseudostratified columnar location (nonciliated)

in males sperm-carrying ducts and ducts of large glands

stratified squamous function

protects underlying tissues in areas subjected to abrasion

stratified squamous location (keratinized)

forms the epidermis of the skin, a dry epithelium

stratified squamous location (nonkeratinized)

forms the moist linings of the esophagus, mouth, and vagina

transitional epithelium function

stretches readily, permits stored urine to distend urinary organ

transitional epithelium location

lines the uterus, bladder, and part of the urethra

microvilli

tiny finger-like extensions that increase exposed area and are found in the plasma membrane

cilia

tiny, hair-like, and propel substances along their free surface lining the trachea

simple epithelia

a single cell layer, they are typically found where a thin epithelial barrier is desirable