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Empiricism
Knowledge is the result of experience and scientific knowledge is developed through observation and experimentation
-Created by Francis Bacon
-Popularized by British philosophers
Wilhelm Wundt
-considered the father of psychology
-established the first psychology lab
-wanted to measure the "atoms of the mind"
Edward Bradford Titchener
-introduced structuralism to study the elements of the mind
-used introspection
Structuralism
Early school focused on identifying the elements of thought and mind (structures) the way early chemists developed the periodic table
Introspection
The process of looking inward to observe one’s own psychological processes
Charles Darwin
-Natural selection of mental and physical traits
-Adaptive evolution
William James
Introduced functionalism
-principles of psychology
Mary Whiton Calkins
-Student of William James
-Specialized in memory research
-Became first female president of the APA
Mary Floy Washburn
-Student of Edward Titchener
-First woman to get a Ph.D
-Wrote “The Animal Mind”
Behaviorism
-psychology should be an objective science
-observable behavior is important to study, not the unseen mental processes
B.F. Skinner
-Studied behaviorism
-Looked at learning processes in animals
John B Watson
-Studied behaviorism
Sigmund Freud
-Developed an influential treatment called psychoanalysis
Psychoanalytic Theory
Unconcious forces and childhood experiences affect our behavior and mental processes
Humanism
-Created by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogerrs
-Humans strive to reach their full potential
-Considered a “third force” in psychology
-Rejected behaviorism and psychoanalytic theory
Cognitive Psychology
The study of mental processes
Cognitive Neuroscience
The interdisciplinary study of brain activity linked with cognition
Psychology
The scientific study of behavior and mental processes of humans and animals
Behavior
Any observable and measurable action taken by a person or animal
Nature vs. Nurture
Do genes (nature) or environmental factors (nurture) contribute to a person’s being?
Nature
-Behavior and mental processes occur because they are innate
-Socrates and Plato
-Rene Decartes
-Charles Darwin
Nurture
-Behaviors and mental processes occur as a result of experiences of the environment
-Aristotle
-John Locke
Evolutionary Psychology
The study of how behaviors and mental processes present in the species today exist because they were naturally selected
Culture
The shared ideas, values, behaviors, and traditions, shared by a group of people and passed from one generation to the next
Gender
Socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female
Positive Psychology
The scientific study of human flourishing
-The goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help communities and individuals thrive
Biopsychosocial Approach
Understanding behavior or mental processes from three key viewpoints
Biological Perspective
How biological (genetics, neural, hormonal) and physiological processes impact behavior and mental processes
Cognitive Perspective
How interpretations of situations impact behavior and mental processes
Evolutionary Perspective
How the natural selection of traits has promoted the survival of genes
Humanistic Perpective
How the drive for personal growth and self actualization impact behavior and mental processes
Sociocultural Perspective
How behavior and thinking vary across situations and cultures
Testing Effect
enhanced memory occurs as a result of retrieving, rather than rereading material
Active Processing
enhanced memory occurs with intentional engagement with material
-put material in your own words
-use a mnemonic device
Applied Research
Scientific inquiry that aims to use psychology to solve practical problems
-real world application of science
Counseling Psychologists
-Help people with adjustments and crises
-Challenges related to work, school, family, and relationships
-Administer and interpret psychological tests
-Therapy and counseling
-May conduct research
Clinical Psychologist
-assess and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders
-administer and interpret psychological tests
-therapy and counseling
-may conduct research
Psychiatrist
-holds an md
-may prescribe drugs to treat physiological causes of psychological disorders
-may also provide psychotherapy
Dorothea Dix
Reformer who advocated for the humane treatment of the mentally ill
Cognitive Psychologists
Study human thinking
Developmental Psychologist
Study how our behaviors and thoughts change over our entire lives, from birth to death
Education Psychologists
-Study how we learn in different environments and in different ways
-Might work in schools or universities designing tests or training teachers
Experimental Psychologists
-Conduct experiments to understand our behavior and mental processes
Psychometric Psychologists
Use math and statistics to create and administer, score and interpret tests
Social Psychologists
Study how we interact with other and how groups impact us individually
Forensic Psychologists
Bring law and psychology together
Environmental Psychologists
study how we are influenced and affected by our natural or built surroundings
health psychologists
Work to promote health and prevent disease
I/O Psychologists
-study the relationship between people and their working environments
-investigate worker productivity and personnel selection, organiztional structuring, consumer behavior, and training
Neuropsychologists
Study how our brain impacts our behavior and thoughts
-Might treat alzheimers, work with athletes, people with autism, or ADHD
Rehabilitation Psychologists
Help individuals who have lost functions after an accident or illness
Hindsight bias
The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one could have foreseen it
Overconfidence
Tendency to think we know more than we do
Perceived order in random events
When one will believe that there is a pattern when there is none
Hypothesis
A testable prediction, often implied by a theory
operational definition
A carefully worded statement of the exact procedures used in a research study
case study
a descriptive technique in which one individual or group is studied in depth in the hope of revealing universal principles
Naturalistic Observation
a descriptive technique of observing and recording behavior in naturally occurring situations without trying to manipulate and control the situation
Survey
A descriptive technique for obtaining the self-reported attitudes or behaviors of a particular group, usually by questioning a representative, random sample of the group
Correlation
A measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either predicts the other
Positive Correlation
Two sets of data tend to rise or fall together
Negative Correlation
One set of data rises while the other falls
Negative correlation
One set of data rises while the other falls
Correlation Coefficient
a statistical index of the relationship between two variables (from -1 to +1)
Illusory Correlation
Perceiving a relationship where none exists or perceiving a stronger-than-actual relationship
Regression to the mean
The tendency for extreme scores or events to fall back toward the average
Experimental Group
Subjects are experimented on
Control group
Subjects do not receive the treatment
Random Assignment
Assigning participants to experiments and control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting conditions between the different groups
Random Sampling
Choosing a representative sample of the population being studied
Single Blind
The participants in the study are uninformed about the treatment, if any, they are receiving
Double Blind
The participants and the researcher are uninformed about which group receives the treatment and which does not
Placebo
An inert treatment, like a pill without medication
Placebo Effect
Causes experimental results simply from expectations or assumptions that medication is being taken
Independent Variable
The factor of an experiment that is being manipulated
Dependent Variable
The outcome of an experiment that is measured
Confounding Variable
A factor other than the factor being studied that might influence a study’s results
Experimental Validity
The extent to which a test or experiment measures or predicts what is supposed to
Descriptive Statistics
-Numerical data used to measure and decribes characteristics of groups
-Includes measure of central tendency and measures of variation
Histogram
A bar graph depicting a frequency distribution
Mean
The mathematical average of a set of numbers
Median
The middle score in a distribution
Mode
The most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution
Range
The difference between the highest and lowest scores in a distribution
Standard Deviation
A computed measure of how much scores carry around the mean score
Normal Distribution
A symmetrical, bell-shaped curve that describes the distribution of many types of data; most scores fall near the mean, or average and fewer and fewer near the extremes
-68% of scores fall 1 standard deviation from the mean
-95% of scores fall 2 standard deviations from the mean
-99% of scores fall 3 standard deviations from the mean
Inferential Statistics
Numerical data that allows on to generalize
-To infer from sample data the probability of something being true of a population
Statistical Significance
Statistical statement of how likely it is that a result happened by chance
-reported as a p-value
-when less than .05, 95% likely that the results did not occur by chance
Descriptive
-basic purpose: to observe and record behavior
-conducted: case studies, naturalistic observation, or surveys
-manipulation: none
-weaknesses: no control of variables; single cases can be misleading
Correlational
-basic purpose: to detect naturally occurring relationships; to assess how well one variable predicts another
-conducted: collect data on two or more variables
-manipulation: none
-weaknesses: cannot specify cause and effect
Experimental
-basic purpose: to explore cause and effect
-conducted: manipulate one or more factors; use random assignment
-manipulation: independent variable
-weaknesses: sometimes not feasible; results may not generalize to other contexts; not ethical to manipulate certain variables
Creative Steps to Research
Design each study, measure target behaviors, interpret the results
Specific Findings
Detecting the blink of a faint red light in a dark room
Theoretical Principles
Ability to fly planes at night
Debriefing
When temporary deception is necessary to the research, it must be fully explained at the conclusion of the experiment