Honors Biology Unit 5-9 Review Flashcards

Flashcards for Honors Biology Final Test Review

What are the main topics covered in Unit 5?

DNA structure and function, protein synthesis, protein folding, denaturation of proteins, enzymes

What test is used for reducing sugars?

Benedict's test

What vocabulary is important for the enzyme unit?

Enzyme, substrate, enzyme-substrate complex, active site

What are key characteristics of proteins regarding their function?

Proteins are reusable and specific to their reaction, and their activity rates are affected by substrate and enzyme concentration.

How do enzymes affect chemical reactions in living organisms?

They speed up reactions by acting as catalysts.

How are enzymes typically named in relation to the reactions they help with?

Sucrase breaks down sucrose, proteases break down proteins, lipases break down lipids, and DNA polymerase builds DNA.

What is dehydration synthesis?

Removing a water molecule to form a bond between two molecules.

What is hydrolysis?

Adding a water molecule to break two molecules.

What is a glycosidic linkage?

The bond between two glucoses to form maltose.

Why is activation energy required for reactions?

Breaking down large molecules requires an initial input of energy to destabilize bonds.

How do catalysts affect activation energy?

They reduce the amount of energy needed to start a reaction.

What is a substrate?

A reactant that binds to an enzyme.

What is the active site?

The enzyme's catalytic site where the substrate fits.

What does it mean for enzymes to be reaction specific?

Each enzyme works with a specific substrate, ensuring a chemical fit between the active site and substrate.

What cellular conditions affect enzyme activity?

Temperature, pH, and salinity.

What is the result of the Benedict's solution test with reducing sugars?

Reducing sugars react with Benedict's solution to form a brick red precipitate.

What structural requirement is neccessary for a sugar to react with Benedict's solution?

The sugar must have a carbonyl present in its molecular structure.

What are isomers?

Glucose, fructose, and galactose.

What is a reducing sugar?

Has a carbonyl group.

What is a non-reducing sugar?

Lacks a carbonyl group.

What is an aldehyde?

Carbonyl at the end of a carbon chain.

What is a ketone?

Carbonyl within a carbon chain.

What is glycosidic linkage?

Bond between two monosaccharides to form a disaccharide.

What occurs during transcription, and which enzyme is mainly used?

Turning DNA into mRNA using RNA polymerase.

What occurs during translation, and what is the main unit used?

Turning mRNA into protein using a ribosome.

What is DNA made of?

Phosphate, sugar, and a nitrogenous base (A, T, C, G).

What are the complementary base pairing rules in DNA and mRNA?

A pairs with T and C pairs with G; in mRNA, T is replaced with U.

What is a mutation?

A change in a nitrogenous base, resulting in a different amino acid and protein.

How is hydrogen peroxide processed in the body?

Converted into H2O and O2 through catalase proteins.

What is the primary structure of a protein?

Order of amino acids joined together by peptide bonds.

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

Alpha helix or beta pleated sheet shapes formed by hydrogen bonding.

What is the tertiary structure of a protein and its bond types?

Three-dimensional shape due to interactions of R groups, including hydrophobic interactions, disulfide bridges, hydrogen bonds, and ionic bonds.

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

Multiple polypeptide chains put together.

What is denaturation?

Structural change that leads to function change.

What is an exergonic reaction?

Releases energy, like digestion or cellular respiration.

What is an endergonic reaction?

Uses energy, like synthesis or photosynthesis.

Briefly describe the simplistic model of enzyme action.

Substrate fits into a 3D structure of enzyme's active site like a key fits into a lock.

Explain the induced fit model of enzyme action.

Enzyme changes to fit the substrate, causing a tighter fit and conformational change.

How do enzymes lower activation energy and speed up reactions?

Active site orients substrates, induces strain on bonds, or adds chemical groups.

How does enzyme concentration affect reaction rate?

As enzyme concentration increases, reaction rate increases until substrate becomes limiting.

How does substrate concentration affect reaction rate?

As substrate concentration increases, reaction rate increases until all enzymes have their active sites engaged.

How does temperature affect enzyme activity?

Heat disrupts bonds, cold decreases collisions.

How does pH affect enzyme activity?

Changes in pH disrupt bonds and denature proteins.

What are inhibitors?

Molecules that reduce enzyme activity.

What is competitive inhibition?

Inhibitor and substrate compete for active site; can be overcome by increasing substrate concentration.

What is noncompetitive inhibition?

Inhibitor binds to site other than the active site, causing a conformational change.

What is denaturation in relation to protein structure?

Loss of tertiary structure which leads to a loss of or impaired function of a protein

What are agents that denature proteins?

Heat, alcohols/detergents, heavy metals, acids and bases, mechanical stress, and salts.

What is enzyme inhibition?

Molecule that reduces enzyme activity

What is feedback inhibition?

In enzyme pathways, the end product inhibits the first enzyme in the pathway as a means of regulation.

What are cofactors?

Non-protein, small inorganic compounds and ions bound within the enzyme molecule.

What are coenzymes?

Non-protein, organic molecules that bind temporarily or permanently to enzyme near active site.

Which vitamins maintain homeostasis in the human body?

Vitamin C, Vitamin B1, Vitamin D, Vitamin A, Vitamin B12, Vitamin B3

How does activation energy affect reaction reversibility?

If activation energy is very low then the reaction is more likely to be reversible

What is the process in which the enzyme changes shape which is induced by the binding of a molecule?

Allosteric regulation

What is a derived trait?

Each organism after the derived trait has the derived trait

What is an autotroph?

An organism that produces its own food

What are photosynthesizers?

Utilizes sunlight to make sugars from CO2 and H2O

What are organisms that utilize sunlight to make sugars from CO2 and H20 called?

Photosynthesizers

What are chemosynthesizers?

Obtains energy from inorganic reactions

What is a heterotroph?

An organism that does not make its own food

What type of nutrition does a flea use?

Parasitism

What nutrition mode consumes plant matter?

Herbivores

What nutrition mode consumes both plants and animals?

Omnivores

What nutrition mode are decomposers that eat dead organic matter?

Detritivores

What nutrition mode feeds on dead animals?

Scavengers

What nutrition mode obtains nutrients from living organisms as a parasite?

Parasitism

What is saprophytism nutrition mode?

Secretes external enzymes on dead organic matter, digests them, and then absorbs nutrients

How does the pork tapeworm, Taenia solium, obtain nutrients?

Absorbs nutrients directly through outer layer

What are the 2 types of digestion?

Physical and Chemical

Which enzyme is found in saliva?

Amylase

What are the key digestive structures of law of the gut in order?

Mouth, esophagus, sphincter muscles, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus

What are the accessory organs involved in digestion?

Liver, gallbladder, pancreas

What is the role of the colon?

Absorbs water and electrolytes from food that remained undigested

What does the rectum contain?

Contains egesta

What are the different types of teeth and their functions?

Incisors for cutting and biting, canines for puncturing and tearing, premolars for cutting and grinding, and molars for grinding.

What are the layers of the teeth?

Enamel, dentin, pulp, cementum, periodontal ligament, and root canal.

What do cusps provide for teeth?

increase surface area for grinding food

What structures make up the buccal (mouth) cavity

Uvula/soft palate, pharynx, epiglottis, and esophagus.

What is the role of the tongue during swallowing?

Mixes food with saliva and squeezes food and saliva into a bolus.

What occurs during the reflex of swallowing?

The stage when tongue goes up, soft palate blocks nasal cavity, epiglottis covers trachea, food enters esophagus

What is the role of rugae?

Grooves/ridges and muscular walls to churn and mix food.

What is the role of perietal cells inside the stomach?

Secretes HCl

What is the role of chief cells inside the stomach?

Secretes pepsinogen

What are the structural adaptations which helps the small intestine increase its surface area for absorption

Villi and microvilli

What is the name of process used to ensure genes are passed onto offspring?

Gene drives

What part of the mosquito proboscis picks up chemicals that blood vessels naturally exude

Receptors

What adaptations are the six needles of a mosquito modified for?

Two needles have teeth, used to saw through skin, another two needles hold tissues apart while sucking blood, anti-coagulant single needle

What adaptations does a fly have instead of the ability to chew?

sponging mouth parts

What are the characteristics of all animals?

Multicellular, heterotrophic, and eukaryotic.

What are the 3 germ layers?

Endoderm, mesoderm, and ectoderm.

What are diploblasts?

Radial symmetry, no muscles, and no mesoderm.

What is a coelumates?

Has a coelum fully lined with mesoderm.

In order, what is the classification of humans?

Eukaryotes, Animals, Chordates, Mammals, Primates, Hominids, Homo, Sapiens

What digestive components does the pancreas supply?

Sodium bicarbonate to raise pH, pancreatic amylase to digest starch, lipase for fats, proteases for proteins.

Describe the process of absorbing lipids within cells

Fatty acids and monoglycerides are emulsified by bile salts to form micelles, fatty acids enter intestinal (epithelial) cells and link together to form trlycerides, the triglycerides combine with proteins inside the golgi of the intestinal cells to form chylomicrons, chylomicrons enter the lacteal and are transported away from the intestine (lymphatic system)

What is the role of the villus in absorbing nutrients.

Provides a capillary network (for blood) that surrounds a lymphatic vessel (lacteal) for lipids.

What is the role of of the large intestine (colon in digestion?

Reabsorption of water, gut microbiome, source of good bacteria

What are the benefits of a high-fiber diet (cellulose, chitin, etc.)?

less constipation, lower risk of colon/rectal cancer, lower blood cholesterol, regulates blood sugar levels, helps losing weight

What constitutes the gut microbiome?

trillions of bacteria, viruses, fungi, and archaea in the intestines that all have their own roles