Criminology Chp 1

Criminology

The scientific study of why people commit crime and why some places have more crime than others

Scientific method in criminology

Use of hypotheses, systematic observation, theory testing, and empirical evidence

Hypothesis

A specific, testable prediction based on prior knowledge or theory

Empirical research

Research based on observable and measurable evidence rather than authority or opinion

Why criminology is scientific

It develops hypotheses, tests them systematically, and applies findings to theory

Philosophical or legal approach to crime

Uses logic and deductive reasoning without hypothesis testing

Journalistic approach to crime

Relies on anecdotal evidence and case-by-case analysis

Religious approach to crime

Authority-based and guided by dogmatic principles

Theory

A set of concepts linked by statements to explain phenomena

Purpose of theory in criminology

To provide testable explanations for criminal behavior

Can theories be wrong but useful?

Yes, theories can make accurate predictions even if incorrect

Burke and Hare case example

Shows consistent criminal motives across time periods

Theoretical paradigm

A broad framework guiding assumptions about crime and behavior

Four major criminological paradigms

Classical, Positivist, Conflict/Critical, Integrated

Classical School assumption

Humans have free will

Classical School view of behavior

Rational and hedonistic

Classical School explanation of crime

Individuals weigh costs and benefits before offending

Classical School focus

Deterrence and individual choice

Positivist assumption

Humans lack free will or full rationality

Positivist view of crime

Behavior is determined by forces beyond individual control

Factors emphasized by Positivism

Genetics, IQ, education, peers, parenting, employment, economics

Goal of Positivist criminology

Scientific identification of causal factors

Conflict theory assumption

Laws serve those in power

Conflict theory level of analysis

Group-level

Conflict theory view of law

Used by powerful groups to control less powerful groups

Focus of Conflict theory

Differential application of the justice system

Integrated theory assumption

Multiple factors work together to explain crime

Strength of integrated theories

Broad explanations of crime

Weakness of integrated theories

Potential logical inconsistencies

Micro-level analysis

Focus on individuals

Macro-level analysis

Focus on groups or societies

Consensus model of law

Laws reflect shared values of society

Conflict model of law

Laws reflect interests of powerful groups

Strain theory assumption of human nature

People are born good but corrupted by society

Control theory assumption of human nature

People are born bad and need control

Differential association assumption of human nature

People are blank slates shaped by environment

Parsimony

The simplest explanation is preferred

Example of parsimony

Low self-control theory

Scope

The range of phenomena a theory explains

Logical consistency

Theory concepts make sense together

Example of poor logical consistency

Lombroso’s tattoo theory

Testability

Theory can be empirically tested

Empirical validity

Theory is supported by research evidence

Example of empirical validity

Differential reinforcement theory

Policy implications

Theory provides practical solutions

Example of policy implications

Broken windows theory

Temporal ordering

X must occur before Y

Correlation or covariation

Changes in X are associated with changes in Y

Spuriousness

Relationship explained by a third variable

Z variable

An alternative explanation for a correlation

Ice cream and crime example

Temperature explains the relationship

Challenge in criminology research

Cannot randomly assign criminogenic conditions

Ethical constraint in criminology

Experiments cannot manipulate harmful conditions

Uniform Crime Report (UCR)

A national measure of crime based on police reports

UCR advantage

Longest historical crime data

UCR reliability

Reliable for murder and motor vehicle theft

UCR limitation

Dark figure of crime

Dark figure of crime

Crime that goes unreported

UCR best used for

Historical trends and homicide research

National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS)

A survey measuring victimization experiences

NCVS advantage

Captures unreported crime

NCVS limitation

Excludes homeless, children, and businesses

NCVS does not measure

Homicide

Telescoping effect

Respondents misreport timing of events

NCVS best used for

Victimization patterns and unreported crime

Self-Report Data (SRD)

Surveys where individuals report their own offending

SRD advantage

Captures psychological and social factors

SRD limitation

Potential dishonesty and lack of national estimates

SRD best used for

Theory testing and individual-level factors

Crime peak of 1920s–1930s

Prohibition and Great Depression

Crime decline of 1940s

World War II demographic changes

Crime increase of 1960s–1980s

Baby Boom and age-crime relationship

Crime decline since 1990s

Multiple contributing factors

Regions with highest crime rates

South and West

Urban-rural crime pattern

Urban higher than suburban, suburban higher than rural

Hot spots

Crime clusters in specific locations

Theory supported by hot spots

Opportunity theory

Juvenile crime peak time

Around 3 PM

Theory explaining juvenile crime timing

Supervision theory

Adult crime peak time

Around 11 PM

Seasonal crime pattern

Higher in summer

Theory explaining seasonal crime

Routine activities theory

Age-crime curve

Crime peaks in adolescence and declines after

Peak age of offending

Around age 17

Gender pattern in violent crime

Males commit 80–98 percent

Theory tested by gender patterns

Biosocial and social learning theories

Equivalency hypothesis

Lower class has higher violent offending and victimization

Property crime class pattern

Lower class offenders, middle and upper class victims

Race and crime pattern

Crime is largely intraracial

Native American victimization

Highest victimization rates

Effect of controlling for poverty

Racial differences diminish

Purpose of crime patterns in theory testing

To evaluate how well theories explain real-world crime