AP Psych amsco unit 0

Cultural norms

The shared rules, expectations, and values that guide behavior and thinking within a group (e.g., greeting with a handshake).

Confirmation bias

The tendency to seek and interpret evidence that confirms existing beliefs while ignoring contradictory evidence.

Hindsight bias

The belief, after learning an outcome, that you "knew it all along."

Overconfidence

The tendency to overestimate the accuracy of one's knowledge or predictions.

Experimental (random assignment)

A method that manipulates variables to establish cause-and-effect, with participants randomly assigned to groups.

Case study

A detailed examination of one individual or small group, often used for rare or unusual conditions.

Correlation

A non-experimental measure of the relationship between two variables, expressed with a correlation coefficient.

Meta-analysis

A statistical technique that combines data from multiple studies to determine overall patterns.

Hypothesis

A testable prediction about how variables are related.

Falsifiable

Capable of being shown to be false by evidence.

Operational definitions

Precise, measurable definitions of variables to allow replication (e.g., "happiness" measured by a specific survey score).

Independent variable

The variable that the researcher manipulates.

Dependent variable

The variable measured to see the effect of changes in the independent variable.

Confounding variables

Uncontrolled factors that could influence the results.

Sample

A subset of the population studied in research.

Population

The entire group from which a sample is drawn.

Representative sample

A sample whose characteristics accurately reflect those of the population.

Random sampling

A selection method giving each member of the population an equal chance of inclusion.

Convenience sampling

Selecting participants who are easy to reach, which may lead to bias.

Sampling bias

When the sample does not accurately represent the population.

Generalizability

The extent to which results apply to other settings, people, and situations.

Experimental group

The group that receives the independent variable in an experiment.

Control group

The group that does not receive the independent variable, serving as a comparison.

Placebo

A treatment with no active effect, used to control for participant expectations.

Single-blind

A design where participants do not know if they are in the experimental or control group.

Double-blind

A design where neither participants nor researchers know group assignments, reducing bias.

Social desirability bias

When participants respond in a way they think will be viewed favorably.

Qualitative research

Non-numerical data collection (e.g., structured interviews) to gain in-depth understanding.

Quantitative research

Numerical data collection (e.g., surveys with Likert scales) to measure and analyze behavior.

Peer review

The evaluation of research by experts in the field before publication.

Replication

Repeating a study to confirm the original findings.

Directionality problem

In correlational studies, the uncertainty about which variable influences the other.

Third variable problem

When an outside factor influences both variables, creating a false correlation.

Survey technique

Collecting data from many people through questionnaires or interviews.

Self-report bias

Inaccurate responses from participants due to memory errors or desire to appear socially acceptable.

Institutional review

A process to ensure research meets ethical standards before it begins.

Informed consent

Participants' agreement to take part in a study after being told its purpose, procedures, and risks.

Informed assent

Permission from minors to participate, in addition to guardian consent.

Protection from harm

Minimizing the risk of physical or psychological harm to participants.

Confidentiality

Keeping participants' personal data private.

Deception

Withholding information or misleading participants about the study's purpose, allowed only if minimal harm and followed by debriefing.

Research confederates

Individuals secretly working with the researcher to influence participants' behavior.

Debriefing

Explaining the study's purpose and any deception to participants after it ends.

Mean

The arithmetic average of a data set.

Median

The middle score in an ordered data set.

Mode

The most frequent score in a data set.

Range

The difference between the highest and lowest scores.

Normal curve

A symmetrical, bell-shaped distribution where most scores are near the mean.

Variation

How much scores differ from each other.

Skewness

The degree to which a distribution is asymmetrical.

Bimodal distribution

A distribution with two peaks or modes.

Standard deviation

A measure of how spread out scores are from the mean.

Percentile rank

The percentage of scores below a given score in a distribution.

Regression toward the mean

The tendency for extreme scores to fall closer to the average on retesting.

Scatterplot

A graph showing the relationship between two variables using plotted points.

Correlation coefficient

A numerical value indicating the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables.

Effect size

A measure of the strength of a relationship or treatment effect.

Statistical significance

The likelihood that a result is not due to chance, often set at p < .05.

Variable

Any factor that can vary and be measured or manipulated in research (e.g., hours of sleep, test score).