Unit 0: Research Methods in Psychology

Psychology

the scientific study of mental processes and behavior

Mental Processes

everything that happens inside our brains, the "thinking" parts of our brain

Behavior

what we do and how we act

Confirmation Bias

a tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions and to ignore or distort contradictory evidence

Hindsight Bias (I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon)

the tendency to believe someone knew something was going to happen after it occurred

Overconfidence

the tendency to be more confident than correct—to overestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and judgments.

Empirical Evidence

information that is obtained through observations, experimentation, or measurement

Scientific Method

a systematic approach used to study human behavior and mental processes

Hypothesis

a specific, testable prediction or educated guess about the relationship between variables or the outcome of a research study

Falsifiable Hypothesis

a statement that can be tested and potentially proven false through observation or experimentation

Peer Review

a process by which the procedures and results of an experiment are evaluated by other scientists who are in the same field or who are conducting similar research

Replication

the process of repeating or reproducing a research study to determine if its findings can be consistently observed

Reliability

the extent to which a test yields consistent results when repeated under similar circumstances

Validity

the extent to which a research study or measurement tool accurately measures what it intends to measure

repeated, reliable results

RRR for Reliability

valid evidence, true

VET for Validity

American Psychological Association (APA)

professional organization dedicated to advancing the field of psychology and promoting the application of psychological knowledge to improve human welfare

Research Design

the overall plan or strategy that outlines how research study will be conducted to address specific research questions or objectives

Methodology

the systematic procedures and techniques used to conduct research within a specific research design

Quantitative Data

numbers-based information gathered from surveys, tests, or experiments

Qualitative Data

gives deeper insights into complex topics

Likert Scales

a measurement tool used in surveys and questionnaires to assess people's attitudes, opinions, or perceptions

Structured Interviews

research method in which predetermined questions are asked to all participants in the smae order

Survey Technique

research method in psychology used to collect data from a sample of individuals through self-report measures

Wording Effect

how subtle changes in the phrasing or wording of survey questions can influence respondents' interpretations and responses

Social Desirability Bias

the tendency of individuals to respond in a manner that is viewed favorably by other or conforms or social norms, rather than providing honest or accurate answers

Naturalistic Observation

research method where researches observe and record behavior in real-world settings without intervention or manipulation

Case Study

research method in psychology that involves an in-depth examination of a single individual, group, or phenomenon

Correlational Research

scientific method used in psychology to examine the relationship between two or more variables

Third Variable Problem

the possibility that a third, unmeasured variable may be influencing the relationship between the two variables of interest

Scatterplot

a visual representation used in correlationtal research to display the relationship between two variables

Correlation Coefficient

statistical measure used in correlational research to quantify the strength and direction of the relationship between two variables

Positive Correlation

one variable tends to decrease as the other variable decreases, or one variable tends to increase when the other increases

Negative Correlation

one variable tends to decrease as the other variable increases, or one variable tends to increase when the other decreases

Experimental Method

a research technique used to investigate cause-and-effect relationships between variables

Independent Variable

the variable that the researcher deliberately changes or manipulates in an experiment

Dependent Variable

the variable that is observed and measured for changes in an experiment

Confounding Variables

a variable that wasn't accounted for or controlled in the study but still affects the results

Operational Definitions

specifies how a researcher will measure and manipulate variables in a study

Experimental Group

the group that is exposed to the independent variable, which is the variable manipulated by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable

Control Group

the group that is not exposed to the independent variable, providing a baseline for comparison with the experimental group

Random Assignment

research method used to assign participants to different groups in an experiment randomly

Placebo Effect

the phenomenon where individuals experience improvement in their condition solely because they believe they are receiving a beneficial treatment, rather than due to any active ingredient or physiological mechanism in the placebo itself

Experimenter Bias

when the researcher's expectations or beliefs about the outcome of a study influence the results

Single-Blind Study

research design where participants are unaware of whether they belong to the experimental or control group, but the researchers conducting the study are aware of this information

Double-Blind Study

research design where both the participants and the researchers conducting the study are unaware of who belongs to the experimental or control group

Placebo Condition

administering the placebo to one group of participants while the other group receives the actual treatment being tested

Sample

a subset of individuals or cases selected from a larger population for study

Representative Sample

a subset of individuals selected from a larger population in such a way that inaccurately reflects the demographics, characteristics, and diversity of that population

Stratified Sampling

a method where the population is divided into subgroups, or strata, based on certain characteristics, and then random samples are taken from each stratum

Convenience Sampling

selecting participants based on their availability and accessibility to the researcher

Random Sample

ensures that each participant in the study has an equal opportunity to be included, which helps to minimize the influence of a researcher bias and increase the generalizability of the findings to the population as a whole

Sample Bias

occurs when the sample is not representative of the larger population

Generalizability

the extent to which research findings obtained from a sample can be applied or generalized to a larger population

Statistics

a tool to turn data into information

Descriptive Statistics

refer to numerical measures used to summarize and describe the characteristics of a dataset

Measure of Central Tendency

statistical tools used to describe the central or average value of a set of data

Inferential statistics

data from a sample used to make inferences or prediction about a larger population

Mean

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the average value of a set of data

Median

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the middle value of a data set when the values are arranged in ascending or descending order

Mode

a measure of central tendency in statistics that represents the most frequently occurring value in a data set

Range

represents the difference between the highest and lowest values in a data set

Normal Curve or Bell Curve

the majority of the data falls near the center, or mean, of the distribution, with progressively fewer values occurring further away from the mean in both directions

Regression to the Mean

when extreme scores tend to get closer to the average when measured again

Positive Skew

the majority of the data clusters on the left side, with the tail extending towards the right, suggesting the presence of outliers or unusually high values

Negative Skew

the majority of the data clusters on the right side, with the tail extending towards the left, suggesting the presence of outliers or exceptionally low values

Standard Deviation

a way to measure how spread out or close together numbers are in a group

Percentile Rank

a statistical measure that indicates the percentage of scores in a distribution that are equal to or below a particular value

Bimodal Distribution

type of data distribution in which there are two distinct peaks or high points on a histogram or frequency distribution graph

Statistical Significance

the likelihood that observed results in a research study are not due to chance

Practical Significance

the measure of whether results in a research study are large enough to be meaningful in the real world

Meta Analysis

the statistical analysis of multiple research studies on the same topic to draw overall conclusions

Instructional Review Boards (IRBs)

committees responsible for reviewing and approving research proposals to ensure that they meet ethical standards and protect the rights and welfare of research participants

Protect Participants from Harm

emphasizes the obligation of researchers to minimize risks and ensure the well-being of research participants throughout the study process

Informed Consent

the process through which individuals voluntarily agree to participate in a research study after being provided with comprehensive information about the study's purpose, procedures, risks, benefits, and their rights as participants

Informed Assent

similar to informed consent but specifically applies to research involving children or individuals who may have limited decision-making capacity, such as those with cognitive impairments or developmental disabilities

Confidentiality

what requires researchers to handle sensitive data and personal information obtained during the study with the utmost discretion and confidentiality

Deception

misleading participants about the true purpose of a study, the procedures involved, or the expected outcomes

Confederates

individuals who are part of a research study but are actually working in collaboration with the researcher and are aware of the true purpose of the study

Debriefing

providing participants with comprehensive information about the true nature, purpose, and procedures of a research study immediately after their participation