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Vicarious reinforcement
observing someone else receive a reward or punishment
Role Taking
being aware of the perspective of another person, thereby better understanding that person's behavior, thoughts, and feelings
Robert Selman's theory (a stage theory)
Proposal: adopting another's perspective is essential to understanding other's thoughts, feelings, motives
Self-Socialization
the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on. Here children are actively shaping their own development
emphasized by social cognition
It is assumed that children's knowledge/beliefs about self and other →adoption of goals/standards to guide their behavior
Hostile Attributional Bias
in Dodge's theory, the tendency to assume that other people's ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent
◦Bias to interpret other's behavior as having hostile intent ◦These become self-fulfilling prophecies ◦Not specific to culture or gender
Achievement Motivation
refers to whether children are motivated by mastery or by others' views of their success
Entity/helpless orientation
a tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure
Incremental/mastery orientation
a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure
Entity Theory
a theory that a person's level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable
Carol Dweck
Mindsets. Importance of student's beliefs about their own intelligence. Wellbeing.
Came up with Hostile attributional bias
Robert Selman
Creator of the role taking theory
believed children younger than age of 6 are unaware of other perspectives outside of their own
believed that social cognition is limited by inability to engage in role-taking behavior
believed that children learn about other perspectives in four abstract stages
Stage 1 (Selman)
ages 6-8; children learn that someone else can have a perspective different from their own but they assume that the different perspective is merely due to t hat. person's not possessing the same information they do
Stage 2 (Selman)
ages 8-10; children not only realize that someone else can have a different view, but they also are able to think about the other person's point of view
Stage 3 (Selman)
(ages 10-12), children can systematically compare their own point of view with another person's.
Stage 4 (Selman)
(ages 12 and older), adolescents attempt to understand another's perspective by comparing it with that of a "generalized other," assessing whether the person's view is the same as that of most people in their social group
Incremental Theory
a theory that person's intelligence can grow as a function of experience
Ethology
concerned with the adaptive, or survival, value of behavior and its evolutionary history
Understand behavior in terms of adaptive and survival value
Behavior patterns are shaped by evolution
Imprinting
a form of learning in which the newborns of some species become attached to and follow adult members of the species
Discovered by Konrad Lorenz
process by which newborn birds and mammals of some species become attached to their mother at first sight and follow her everywhere ◦ Ensures a baby will stay close to their source of food/protection ◦ There is a sensitive period for imprinting
Play
in evolutionary psychology, one of the most salient forms of behavior during the period of immaturity of most mammals, is an evolved platform for learning
Parental-investment theory
a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior that benefit the offspring
parents are motivated by the drive to perpetuate their genes
Bioecological Model
a set of nested structures, each inside the next, that represents a different level of influence on development
Bioecological Model order
(Inside to out) Microsystem, Mesosystem, Exosystem, Macrosystem, Chronosystem
Microsystem
the people and objects in an individual's immediate environment
the activities and relationships in which a child directly participates, family and influence in early childhood is important.
Children have some influence of\ver this
Mesosystem
the interconnections among immediate. or microsystem settings.
Examples are family, peers, and schools
Good relationships are shown to help impact academics
Exosystem
environmental settings that a child does not directly experience but can affect the child indirectly
Parental workplaces and how policies impact parental leave, flexible work hours, and on-site childcare
Macrosystem
the larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded
Consists of general beliefs, values, customs, and laws of the larger society in which all the other levels are embedded
Chronosystem
in the bioecological model, historical changes that influence the other systems
Overtime changes in beliefs, values, customs, family structure and dynamics and technologies have consequences for child's development
ADHD
a syndrome that involves difficulty in sustaining attention
Parental Investment Theory
a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior, including the extensive investment parents make in their offspring
long periods of immaturity and dependence in human infancy enables young children to learn and practice many of the skills needed later in LIfe
Darwinian (natural selection)
concepts from this are what evolutionary psychologists apply to human behavior
Certain genes predispose individuals to behave in ways that solve adaptive challenges ◦ These individuals more likely to survive, mate, produce offspring ◦ Adaptive genes became increasingly more common and passed down generationally ◦ So, our behavior is the legacy of the demands of our prehistoric ancestors
Brofenbrenner
created the bioecologcial model
Konrad Lorenz
research on imprinting has been particulary relavent to certain theories of social development in children.
Social Information Processing Theory
a theory suggesting that electronically mediated relationships grow only to the extent that people gain information about each other and use that information to form impressions
approach emphasizes the importance of children's attributions regading their own and others' behavior
Clearly reflected in hostile attributional bias
created by Dodge
Emphasizes the role of cognition in social behavior
Researched use of aggression as a problem-solving strategy for children
Dweck's theory of self-attribution
focuses on children's achievement motivation that is influenced by their attributions about the reasons for their successes and failures.
Children with incremental/mastery oreintation....
these kids in this specific category enjoys working on challenging problems and are consistent on trying to solve them
Children with entity/helpless orientation....
these kids in this specific category prefer situtations in which they expect to succeed and tend to withdraw when they experience failure
Aggression
Dodge's approach to social cognition centers on the use of ___________ as a problem-solving strategy
Achievement motivation
According to Dweck, whether a child meets a new challenge with a sense of excitement or with a sense of anxiety depends on that child's __________
The Microsystem
Lisa's peers are picking on her at recess because she wears glasses. Which level of Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model is affecting Lisa?
The development of increasingly effective security measures for digital devices
Media use and exposure can impact an individual on every level of bioecological model. Which of the following would represent an intervention at the mesosystem?
Social cognition theories
this group places the most emphasis on the importance of the child's knowledge and beliefs
Social Cognition
The complexity of children's reasoning about the social world is limited by the complexity of their thought processes in general
As general thinking processes become complex, thinking about others can become more abstract
Psychoanalytic and Learning Theories
external forces are primary source of developing
Incremental view of intelligence
Belief that intelligence can improve with effort and practice.
Motivation: learning goals: Seek to improve competence, master new material
Biggest themes in chapter 9
Active Child, Individual Differences, and Continuity/Discontinuity
Discontinuity
The view that development is characterized by abrupt changes in behavior; often associated with stage theories of development.
age-related qualitative change in how children think about the social world
Continuity
the tendency to perceive things as simply as possible with a continuous pattern rather than with a complex, broken-up pattern
in relation to information processing theories and is the basis for the progress of social learning
Early Harsh Parenting
One prediction of Hostile Attributional Bias
Persistent social information-processing bias (adulthood) ◦Particularly true for children with history of physical abuse ◦Heightened sensitivity to anger cues ◦ Better at recognizing angry faces ◦ Degree of speed in recognition correlated to degree of hostility experienced
School Challenges
a consequence of Hostile Attribution Bias
"Solution" to this: Put all people with hostile attribution bias into one area with "increased supervision"
PROBLEMS with this solution? ◦ People more likely to react to one another with hostile attribution bias ◦ Decreased opportunity for learning from more well-adjusted people
Impact of Alternative solutions to Hostile attributional bias (Fast Track, Multi year prevention intervention to reduce aggression)
: long-term benefits of decreasing aggression through social cognitive processes, reduced delinquent/criminal behavior in adulthood
Entity view of intelligence
Belief that intelligence is a "thing" that is relatively permanent and unchangeable.
Motivation: performance goals:Seek to receive positive assessments of competency and avoid negative assessments
If child has Entity theory of intelligence:
◦ Think intelligence is fixed ◦ Success or failure depends on how smart one is ◦ Focus is on outcome, not effort/learning from mistakes ◦ Experience failure → feel helpless
If child has Incremental theory of intelligence:
◦ Think intelligence can grow as a function of experience ◦ think academic success is achievable through persistence/effort ◦ Reflect on what they have learned when evaluating own performance ◦ Even when fail, think they can do better in the future → hopeful
Environment
Most developmental psychology theories discuss the role of __________
Defined narrowly (peers, family, school)
Themes represented through environment's impact
Nature/nurture, Sociocultural context, Continuity, Active Child
Ethological & Evolutionary Theories
Concerned with understanding development in terms of a given animals evolutionary heritage ◦Species-specific behaviors
Bowlby (1969) on imprinting
extended idea of imprinting to infant's formation of emotional attachments to their mother ◦ Attachment increases an infant's chances of survival ◦ Infant has a secure base from which to explore the world
Womb
Orienting to sensory input experienced in _________
Faces
Humans have a strong tendency and visual preference for ______
"Wow, you worked really hard on that."
Jose brought home a painting of the beach he made in art class to show his mom. According to Carol Dweck, what is the best response Jose's mother can make if she wants to support Jose's future motivation?
Monosystem
not a system of Uri Bronfenbrenner's bioecological model?
What is true about children's media use?
a. Educational TV is beneficial for children's learning. b. Older children spend more time on screens than younger children. c. Exposure to media violence has been found to be related to children's aggression.
Discrete emotions theory
theory that humans experience a small number of distinct emotions that are rooted in their biology
Nativists would most likely agree with this theory about emotional development
a theory in which emotions are viewed as innate, and each emotion has a specific and distinctive set of bodily and facial reactions
Shame
1-year-old is not capable of expressing _____
Happiness --> Anger ---> Disgust ---> Guilt
Across development, a child learns to label more emotion types. Which of the below is the correct order of developmental progress (from earliest to latest) a child shows when learning how to label emotions?
The Marshmallow Test
test self-control, can predict academic achievement, SAT scores, drug use, and likability
Created by Walter Mischel
designed to determine how well children can delay gratification, or how well they manage the frustration of waiting to eat one treat in order to get two treats in the future
Several Concepts of Emotions
Neural responses, physiological factors (heart rate, breathing rate, and hormone levels), subjective feelings, emotional expression, the desire to take action, including the desire to escape, approach, or change people or things in the environment
Emotions
neural and physiological responses to the environment, subjective feelings, cognitions related to those feelings, and the desire to take action
Functionalist perspective
a theory which argues that the basic function of emotions is to promote action toward achieving a goal. In this view, emotions are not discrete from one another and vary somewhat based on the social environment
Types of emotions
happiness, disgust, fear, anger, sadness, shame, and guilt
Social smiles
smiles that are directed at people; they first emerge around the third month of life
first clear sign of happiness
exhibited during the REM phase of sleep
Happiness (expression)
smiling, either with a closed mouth or with an open upturned mouth; raised cheeks, which in turn makes the eyes squint a bit
Anger (expression)
strongly furrowed brow that comes down in the center, almost making an X of the brow muscles; open square-shaped mouth, sometimes baring teeth; flared nostrils
Surprise (expression)
eyes wide open; eyebrows raised into arches; mouth open in round O shape
Sadness (expression)
downturned corners of the mouth, lips pushed together and possibly trembling, slightly furrowed brow
Fear (expression)
eyes wide open; brows raised in the middle, making a triangle shape; corners of mouth pulled back into a grimace, with mouth either open or closed
Disgust (expression)
nose crinkled and nostrils flared; mouth open wide with lips pulled back and possibly with tongue sticking out
Fear of strangers
early form of fear that infants show early on
Separation anxiety
feelings of distress that children, especially infants and toddlers, experience when they are separated, or expect to be separated, from individuals to whom they are emotionally attached
Self-conscious emotions
emotions such as guilt, shame, embarrassment, and pride that relate to our sense of self and our consciousness of others' reactions to us
Guilt in children
is associated with empathy for others and involves feelings or remorse and regret about one's behavior as well as the desire to undo the consequences of that behavior; associated with a specific behavior they have undertaken
Shame in Children
Not related to concern about others, focus on themselves and the acceptance of a personal failure; they feel that they are exposed and they often feel like hiding; feelings associated with their self-worth
Social Referencing
the use of a parent's or another adult's facial expression or vocal cues to decide how to deal with novel, ambiguous, or possibly threatening situations
Display rules
a social group's informal norms about when, where, and how much one should show emoitons and when and where displays of emoiotn should be suppressed or masked by displays of other's emotions
Emotional intelligence
refers to individuals' ability to cognitively process information about emotions and to use that information to guide both their thoughts and behaviors
Emotion Regulation
a set of both conscious and unconscious processes and used to both monitor and modulate emotional experiences and expressions; develops gradually over the course of childhood and paves the way for success in social interactions as well as in academic settings
Co-regulation
controls emotional states of young infants; the process by which a caregiver provides the needed comfort or distraction to help a child reduce his or her distress
Self-comforting behaviors
repetitive actions that regulate arousal by providing a mildly positive physical sensation
infants utilize this strategy through sucking fingers and rubbing hands together
Self-distraction
looking away from an upsetting stimulus in order to regulate one's level of arousal
infants utilize this strategy by turning
Social Competence
the ability to achieve personal goals in social interactions while simultaneously maintaining positive relationships with others
Emotion Socialization
the process through which children acquire the values, standards, skills, knowledge, and behaviors that are regarded as appropriate for their present and future roles in their particular culture
Emotion coaching
the use of discussion and other forms of instruction to teach children how to cope with and properly express emotions
Temperament
individual differences in emotion, activity level, and attention that are exhibited across contexts and that are present from infancy and thus thought to be genetically based
Individual Differences and the role of Nature and Nuture
what the construct of temperament are highly relevant to in development
Main characteristics of children identified in temperament interviews
mood, adaptability, activity level, attention span, and persistence
The three groups of infants Alexander Thomas and Stella Chess
Easy babies, Difficult Babies, Slow-to-warm-up babies
Easy babies
40% of babies that adjusted readily to new situations, quickly established daily routines such as sleeping and eating, and generally were cheerful in mood and easy to calm
Difficult Babies
10 % of babies that were slow to adjust to new experiences, tended to react negatively and intensely to novel stimuli and events, and were irregular in their daily routines and bodily functions
Slow-to-warm-up babies
15 % of babies were somewhat difficult at first but became easier over time as they had repeated contact with new objects, people, and situations
Between-person approach
(Thomas and chess 1977)
easy difficult slow to warm up
no longer used
Within person approach
characterize every child along the same set of dimensions of temperament
Note 
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