Cumulative Course Vocabulary

binary

a way of representing information using only two options

bit

a contraction of "binary digit"; the single unit of information in a computer, typically represented as a 0 or 1

byte

8 bits

overflow error

error from attempting to represent a number that is too large

round-off error

error from attempting to represent a number that is too precise; the value is rounded

analog data

data with values that change continuously, or smoothly, over time (examples of analog data include music, colors of a painting, or position of a sprinter during a race)

digital data

data that changes discretely through a finite set of possible values

sampling

a process for creating a digital representation of analog data by measuring the analog data at regular intervals called samples

lossless compression

a process for reducing the number of bits needed to represent something without losing any information; this process is reversible

lossy compression

a process for reducing the number of bits needed to represent something in which some information is lost or thrown away; this process is not reversible

intellectual property

a work or invention that is the result of creativity, such as a piece of writing or a design, to which one has rights and for which one may apply for a patent, copyright, trademark, etc.

Creative Commons

a collection of public copyright licenses that enable the free distribution of an otherwise copyrighted work; used when an author wants to give people the right to share, use, and build upon a work that they have created

computing device

a machine that can run a program, including computers, tablets, servers, routers, and smart sensors

computing system

a group of computing devices and programs working together for a common purpose

computing network

a group of interconnected computing devices capable of sending or receiving data

path

the series of connections between computing devices on a network starting with a sender and ending with a receiver

bandwidth

the maximum amount of data that can be sent in a fixed amount of time, usually measured in bits per second

protocol

an agreed-upon set of rules that specify the behavior of some system

IP address

the unique number assigned to each device on the Internet

internet protocol (IP)

a protocol for sending data across the Internet that assigns unique numbers (IP addresses) to each connected device

router

a type of computer that forwards data across a network

packet

a chunk of data sent over a network; larger messages are divided into these things and may arrive at the destination in order, out-of-order, or not at all

redundancy

the inclusion of extra components so that a system can continue to work even if individual components fail, for example by having more than one path between any two connected devices in a network

fault tolerant

can continue to function even in the event of individual component failures; this is important because elements of complex systems like a computer network fail at unexpected times, often in groups

hypertext transfer protocol (HTTP)

a protocol for computers to request and share the pages that make up the world wide web on the Internet

internet

a computer network consisting of interconnected networks that use standardized, open (nonproprietary) communication protocols

world wide web

a system of linked pages, programs, and files

digital divide

differing access to computing devices and the Internet, based on socioeconomic, geographic, or demographic characteristics

user interface

the inputs and outputs that allow a user to interact with a piece of software; can include a variety of forms such as buttons, menus, images, text, and graphics

input

data that are sent to a computer for processing by a program; can come in a variety of forms, such as tactile interaction, audio, visuals, or text

output

any data that are sent from a program to a device; can come in a variety of forms, such as tactile interaction, audio, visuals, or text

program statement

a command or instruction; sometimes also referred to as a code statement

program

a collection of program statements; programs run (or "execute") one command at a time

sequential programming

program statements run in order, from top to bottom

event-driven programming

some program statements run when triggered by an event, like a mouse click or a key press

documentation

a written description of how a command or piece of code works or was developed

comment

form of program documentation written into the program to be read by people and which do not affect how a program runs

pair programming

a collaborative programming style in which two programmers switch between the roles of writing code and tracking or planning high level progress

debugging

finding and fixing problems in an algorithm or program

developement process

the steps or phases used to create a piece of software; typical phases include investigating, designing, prototyping, and testing

event

associated with an action and supplies input data to a program; can be generated when a key is pressed, a mouse is clicked, a program is started, or by any other defined action that affects the flow of execution

expression

a combination of operators and values that evaluates to a single value

assignment operator

allows a program to change the value represented by a variable

variable

a named reference to a value that can be used repeatedly throughout a program

string

an ordered sequence of characters

boolean value

a data type that is either true or false

comparison operations

logical operator

NOT, AND, and OR, which evaluate to a Boolean value

conditional statement

affect the sequential flow of control by executing different statements based on the value of a Boolean expression

function

a named group of programming instructions; also referred to as a "procedure"

function call

a command that executes the code within a function

list

an ordered collection of elements

element

an individual value in a list that is assigned a unique index

index

a common method for referencing the elements in a list or string using numbers

iteration

a repetitive portion of an algorithm which repeats a specified number of times or until a given condition is met; doing some steps over and over

infinite loop

occurs when the ending condition will never evaluate to true

traversal

the process of accessing each item in a list one at a time

data abstraction

manage complexity in programs by giving a collection of data a name without referencing the specific details of the representation

problem

a general description of a task that can (or cannot) be solved with an algorithm

algorithm

a finite set of instructions that accomplish a task

sequencing

putting steps in an order

selection

deciding which steps to do next

efficiency

a measure of how many steps are needed to complete an algorithm

linear search

a search algorithm which checks each element of a list, in order, until the desired value is found or all elements in the list have been checked

binary search

a search algorithm that starts at the middle of a sorted set of numbers and removes half of the data; this process repeats until the desired value is found or all elements have been eliminated

reasonable

algorithms with a polynomial efficiency or lower (constant, linear, square, cube, etc.) are said to run in a(n) ______________ amount of time

unreasonable

algorithms with exponential or factorial efficiencies are examples of algorithms that run in a(n) ______________ amount of time

heuristic

provides a "good enough" solution to a problem when an actual solution is impractical or impossible

decision problem

a problem with a yes/no answer (for example, is there a path from A to B?)

optimization problem

a problem with the goal of finding the "best" solution among many (for example, what is the shortest path from A to B?)

undecidable problem

a problem for which no algorithm can be constructed that is always capable of providing a correct yes-or-no answer

sequential computing

a model in which programs run in order, one command at a time

parallel computing

a model in which programs are broken into small pieces, some of which are run simultaneously

distributed computing

a model in which programs are run by multiple devices

speedup

the time used to complete a task sequentially divided by the time to complete a task in parallel

parameter

a variable in a function definition; used as a placeholder for values that will be passed through the function

argument

the value passed to the parameter

return

used to return the flow of control to the point where the procedure (also known as a function) was called and to return the value of expression

procedural abstraction

a process that allows a procedure to be used only knowing what it does, not how it does it; allows a solution to a large problem to be based on the solution of smaller subproblems; this is accomplished by creating procedures to solve each of the subproblems

library

a group of functions (procedures) that may be used in creating new programs

application problem interface (API)

specifications for how functions in a library behave and can be used

citizen science

scientific research conducted in whole or part by distributed individuals, many of whom may not be scientists, who contribute relevant data to research using their own computing devices

cleaning data

a process that makes the data uniform without changing its meaning (for example, replacing all equivalent abbreviations, spellings, and capitalizations with the same word)

correlation

a relationship between two pieces of data, typically referring to the amount that one varies in relation to the other

crowdsourcing

the practice of obtaining input or information from a large number of people via the Internet

information

the collection of facts and patterns extracted from data

data bias

data that does not accurately reflect the full population or phenomenon being studied

data filtering

choosing a smaller subset of a data set to use for analysis; (for example, by eliminating or keeping only certain rows in a table)

computing innovation

an innovation that includes a computer or program code as an integral part of its functionality; can be physical (e.g. self-driving car), non-physical computing software (e.g. picture editing software), or non-physical computing concepts (e.g., e-commerce)

personally identifiable information (PII)

information about an individual that identifies, links, relates, or describes them; often required to use or benefit from online applications; becomes more harmful when the information becomes linked to a name (for example, while it is not very harmful for your home address to be on Google Maps, it would become a privacy concern if it were to be publicly linked to your name); can be used to stalk or steal the identity of a person, or plan criminal acts against someone

phishing

a technique that attempts to trick a user into providing personal information; that personal information can then be used to access sensitive online resources, such as bank accounts and emails

keylogging

the use of a program to record every keystroke made by a computer user in order to gain fraudulent access to passwords and other confidential information

malware

software intended to damage a computing system or to take partial control over its operation

rogue access point

a wireless access point that gives unauthorized access to secure networks

encryption

a process of encoding messages to keep them secret, so only "authorized" parties can read it

decryption

a process that reverses encryption, taking a secret message and reproducing the original plain text

symmetric key encryption

involves one key for both encryption and decryption; this key should be kept a secret

public key (asymmetric) encryption

pairs a public key for encryption and a private key for decryption; the sender does not need the receiver's private key to encrypt a message, but the receiver's private key is required to decrypt the message; enables parties to initiate secure communications through an open medium, such as the Internet, in which there might be eavesdroppers

multi-factor authentication

a system that requires at least two steps to unlock protected information; each step adds a new layer of security that must be broken to gain unauthorized access; the three steps can be something you know (e.g. password), something you possess (e.g. phone), or something you are (e.g. thumbprint or facial recognition)

certificate authority

an entity that stores, signs, and issues digital certificates; verifies the authenticity of encryption keys used in secure communications and are based on a trust model; a digital certificate certifies the ownership of a PUBLIC KEY