HDFS 201 Exam 2

Compared to infancy and toddlerhood, growth is ___ during early childhood.

Slower

From ages 2-6, the average child grows how many inches and gains how many pounds in weight each year?

2-3 inches, gains nearly 5 pounds in weight each year.

What contributes to growth in early childhood?

Genetics!

• Parents’ height

• Hormones

• Ethnic differences (African descent tend to be the tallest, followed by those of European descent, then Asian, then latino).

From ages 2-6, what tends to decline? (Nutrition related)

Appetite. Children may become picky eaters.

Dietary deficiencies are not limited to developing nations, although chronic ___ is much higher in these countries.

malnutrition

Between what ages do children make significant gains in gross motor skills?

Ages 3 & 6.

Significant gains in motor skills in children ages 3-6 involves the large muscles, with activities such as

running & jumping.

True or false: Kids aren’t really adding new gross motor skills in childhood.

True, they are just building on them, combining them, getting better at them.

Fine motor skills involve

Hand-eye and small muscles coordination

What are some examples of fine motor skills? What do they contribute to?

Buttoning a shirt, pouring milk into a glass, put puzzles together, draw pictures, tying shoes. Contribute to increased independence.

At age 2, the brain reaches % of its adult weight, and % by age 5.

75% of its adult weight; 90% by age 5.

Improvement in kids’ motor and cognitive abilities comes from many developments, such as

• increases in brain matter

• Pruning

• Early experiences

• Myelination

What is Piaget;s preoperational reasoning?

Dramatic leap in symbolic thinking, permitting:

• improving use of language

• Improved interaction with others

• Play using their own thoughts & imaginations to guide behavior.

In cognitive development in early childhood, are kids able to grasp logic and complex relationships?

No, they are still unable to grasp logic and complex relationships.

Piaget’s preoperational reasoning and common errors that occur are

egocentrism: Inability to take another person’s point of view or perspective.

What is animism?

The belief that inanimate objects are alive and have feelings & intentions.

What is the tendency to focus on one part of a stimulus or situation and excluding all others?

Centration

What is the inability to understand that reversing a process can often undo it and restore it to the original state?

Irreversability

What is conservation?

Understanding that the quantity of a substance is not transformed by changes in its appearance, that a change in appearance can be reversed.

Success on Piaget’s tasks depend on language abilities, and young children are less ____ than Piaget believed.

Egocentric

What is something that Piaget didn’t really get right?

Animism. Some animism exists, but young children do not often describe inanimate objects with life-like qualities. Children can also be coached on some tasks (e.g. reversability) and grasp them earlier.

What is theory of mind and metacognition?

Theory of mind: Children’s awareness of their own and other people’s mental processes.

Metacognition: Knowledge of how the mind works and the ability to control the mind. Between ages 2 and 5, children’s understanding of the mind grows, and they understand that they can know something that others do not. That their thoughts cannot be observed, and that there are individual differences in mental states. However, young children do not understand that we think even when inactive, and are not very good at thinking about thinking and understanding some of their more subtle processes.

What is a false belief task?

One of the key tests that evaluates awareness of others’ perceptions. a type of task used in theory of mind studies in which children must infer that another person does not possess knowledge that they possess. For example, children shown that a candy box contains pennies rather than candy are asked what someone else would expect to find in the box. Children of about 3 years or younger would say pennies, whereas older children would correctly reply candy.

3 year olds tend to perform poorly on false belief tasks.

3 year olds confuse present knowledge with the memories for prior knowledge, a finding that is across procedures and ___.

cultures.

By age 3, children understand that two people can believe different things. ___ year olds understand that people who are presented with different versions of the same event develop different beliefs.

4

What are factors that influence false belief understanding?

Advanced cognition, language development, parent-child interactions.

Body proportions change during early childhood as the ___ “catches up” with the ___. The proportion of body fat to muscle changes.

body catches up with the head

The cephalocaudal trend of infancy continues as the trunk, arms, and legs grow rapidly and

body proportions become similar to those of adults. Specifically, the long bones of the arms and legs

form new tissue through a process known as

ossification

Ossification results in gains in

in height and arm-span as the legs and arms grow; bones also become stronger and harder

Describe Erikson’s psychosocial stage of initiative vs guilt.

Young children must develop a sense of purposefulness and take pride in their accomplishments; much of the work of this stage occurs in play.

What is initiative in Erikson’s initiative vs guilt?

Young children make plans, tackle new tasks, set goals, and work to achieve them.

What is guilt in Erikson’s initiative vs guilt?

Young children feel guilt when they fail to uphold rules and when they fall to achieve a goal; parents are controlling or punitive, critical, or threatening.

Parenting style is the emotional ___ of the parent-child relationship.

Climate

What are the general child outcomes of the authoritarian parenting style?

Children tend to:

• Be disruptive in their interactions with peers

• React with hostility when they experience frustrating interactions with peers

• Boys:

  • Higher rates of anger and defiance

• Girls:

  • Higher rates of dependency, less exploration, overwhelmed by challenging tasks

What are the child outcomes of a permissive parenting style?

Children tend to:

• Be more socioemotionally immature and show little self-control and self-regulatory capacity

• Be more impulsive, rebellious, and bossy

• Show less task persistence

• Show low levels of school achievement

• Show more behavior problems

What are the child outcomes of an authoritative parenting style?

• Children comply with parent requests

• Children are curious, self-reliant, and assertive

• Children display

  • Confidence, cooperation, self-esteem, social skills

  • High academic achievement, and score higher on measures of executive functioning

What are the child outcomes of an uninvolved parenting style?

• Negative consequences for all forms of children’s development:

  • Cognitive

  • Emotional

  • Social

Discipline is the methods a parent uses to teach and socialize children toward ____ ____.

acceptable behavior

The consequences of a child’s behavior influence the child’s future behavior. Children learn best when they are reinforced for ___ behavior, and punishment is appropriate in small ____ and specific contexts.

good behavior; small doses

It is more effective to teach kids (and people and animals in general) what they should do, rather than

punish them for what they should not do.

What makes punishment effective?

Punishment should

• occur immediately after the problematic (dangerous) behavior

• Be applied consistently

• Be appropriate for the child’s age and behavior

• Be clearly connected to the behavior

Describe what happens in time out.

Removing a child from the reinforcement for a short period of time

Is time-out effective in reducing inappropriate behavior?

Yes, it’s often as much about helping and teaching emotion regulation as being disciplinary.

In all but one scenario, spanking/corporal punishment is ____ and causes a bunch of other problems. What are the worst and best scenario?

Ineffective; best case scenario, spanking is less effective than R+

Worse case, it causes

• Aggression

• Truancy, rule-breaking, and problems at school

• Depression & anxiety

• Property destruction

• Harms parent-child relationships

What is inductive discipline?

a parenting approach that uses reasoning and explanation to guide children's behavior, fostering self-discipline by helping them understand the impact of their actions and learn socially appropriate behavior. 

(Rather than just enforcing rules)

Methods that use reasoning, are effective alternatives to spanking in changing a child’s behavior. It helps children find and use words to express their feelings. Provide children with choices.

(And remember, a still better option is to reinforce the good when you see it, than punish the bad)

What is a no-nonsense parenting style is where is it more common?

This is the scenario where spanking doesn’t usually cause problem outcomes. Physical punishment is generally still less effective than positive reinforcement, but it doesn’t cause negative outcomes.

More common among African American families. It emphasizes high, even strict, parental control as well as warmth and affection.

• Mothers often stress obedience and view strict control as important in helping children develop self-control & attentiveness

What is empathy? It requires ____-___ ability.

The capacity to understand another person’s emotions. Requires perspective-taking ability.

What is prosocial behavior?

Behavior that is oriented toward others for the pure sake of helping them, without expecting a reward.

Empathy motivates ____ ____

prosocial behavior

Prosocial behaviors become more complex in early childhood. What is a good example of this?

Sharing a toy or giving another child candy when he or she is upset.

Empathy often yields sympathy, which is what?

a concern or sorrow for another person.

Which one is empathy, and which one is sympathy?

I recognize, relate, or feel your suffering

I care about your suffering

1st one is empathy, 2nd one is sympathy

Three- and 4-year-old white children tend to express racial preferences in the form of a ____ - __bias

pro-white

Young children of color may demonstrate preferences for lighter skin or internalize racial biases. True or false?

True

Aggression involves intentionally causing harm to others. True or false?

True

[7.1 Body Growth] As compared with the first 2 years of life, growth slows/speeds up during early childhood. From ages 2 through 6, the average child grows - inches taller and gains nearly - pounds in weight each year. The typical 6-year-old child weighs about 45 pounds and is about 46 inches tall.

slows; 2-3 inches taller; 5 pounds in weight each year

[7.1 Body Growth] Body proportions change during early childhood as the body “catches up” with the head (cephalocaudal). The proportion of body fat to muscle changes. Young children become more lean and both boys and girls gain muscle can lose fat, but at 5 years of age boys/girls have slightly more fat than boys/girls and boys/girls more muscle.

girls have slightly more fat than boys; boys have more muscle

[7.1 Body Growth] The cephalocaudal trend of infancy continues as the trunk, arms, and legs grow rapidly and body proportions become similar to those of adults. Specifically, the long bones of the arms and legs form new tissue through a process known as

ossification

[7.1 Body Growth] What is ossification?

The process of cartilage being converted into bone.

[7.1 Body Growth] What does ossification result in?

Ossification results in gains in height and armspan as the legs and arms grow; bones also become stronger and harder. As a result, over early childhood young children’s bodies become less top-heavy, their bodies slim and legs become longer, and they start to take on proportions that are similar to adults.

[7.1 Body Growth] Generally, what ethnicities tend to be the tallest? Order them from tallest to smallest. What’s another thing to keep in mind though?

Children of African descent tend to be tallest, followed by children of European descent, then Asian, then Latino.

Contextual factors, such as access to nutrition and health care, also influence body growth.

[7.1 Motor Development] Between the ages of 3 and 6, children become physically stronger, with increases in ___ and ____ strength. As the parts of the brain responsible for sensory and motor skills develop, children gain balance and coordination and can run, stop suddenly, and turn, jump, hop, and climb.

bone and muscle strength.

[7.1 Motor Development] At what age of children show the highest level of activity in the lifespan?

3 year olds

[7.1 Motor Development] What is the gross motor skill that develops for children age 2-3?

Walks more smoothly, runs but cannot turn or stop suddenly, jumps, throws a ball with a rigid body and catches by trapping ball against chest, rides push toys using feet

[7.1 Motor Development] What is the gross motor skill that develops for children age 3-4?

Runs, ascends stairs alternating feet, jumps 15 to 24 inches, hops, pedals and steers a tricycle

[7.1 Motor Development] What is the gross motor skill that develops for children age 4-5?

Runs more smoothly with control over stopping and turning, descends stairs alternating feet, jumps 24 to 33 inches, skips, throws ball by rotating the body and transferring weight to one foot, catches ball with hands, rides tricycle and steers effectively

[7.1 Motor Development] What is the gross motor skill that develops for children age 5-6?

Runs more quickly, skips more effectively, throws and catches a ball like older children, makes a running jump of 28 to 36 inches, rides bicycle with training wheels

[7.1 Motor Development] Children who learn to crawl early tend to show more advanced ____ skills in early childhood than their late-crawling peers

advanced motor skills

[7.1 Motor Development] Preschoolers who regularly engage in moderate to vigorous physical activity tend to show better gross __ _____.

motor coordination

[7.1 Motor Development] Young children’s motor abilities unfold with maturation and are also influenced by their context. Children in low socioeconomic status homes in the United States and the United Kingdom tend to perform more poorly on measures of gross and fine motor development, perhaps because of

nutritional deficits, reduced opportunities for outside play, and other reductions in supports. A caregiver’s encouragement or discouragement of vigorous active play and outdoor play influences children’s opportunities to practice and refine motor skills, and their gross motor competence.

[7.1 Motor Development] Children learn new motor skills by ________________________. They also learn by observing other children and through ___.

experimenting with movement and discovering new abilities; play

[7.1 Motor Development] Boys and girls show similar motor abilities, with subtle differences. What are they? Why could this be?

1. Boys tend to be more active than girls and can typically throw a ball and kick better as well as jump farther than girls.

2. Girls, on the other hand, tend to be better at coordinated activities such as balancing on one foot.

The games that boys and girls are typically encouraged to play contribute to sex differences in motor skills. For example, boys often have more practice in games involving balls and girls often play balancing games, such as hopscotch.

[7.1 Motor Development] The activities favored for children and those children therefore practice and master vary with cultural context. What are some examples of this?

Young children of some nations can swim in rough ocean waves that many adults of other nations would not attempt. In one comparison, Brazilian children—raised in a culture that stresses spontaneous, informal, playful, and physically active behavior—tended to outperform British children in comparisons of vigorous activities such as running and jumping. The British children, on the other hand, immersed in a culture that tended to encourage quiet, independent, and self-contained activities that foster academic achievement excelled on fine motor movements as compared with the Brazilian children.

[7.1 Motor Development] Young children of some nations can swim in rough ocean waves that many adults of other nations would not attempt. In one comparison, Brazilian children—raised in a culture that stresses spontaneous, informal, playful, and physically active behavior—tended to outperform British children in comparisons of vigorous activities such as running and jumping. The British children, on the other hand, immersed in a culture that tended to encourage quiet, independent, and self-contained activities that foster academic achievement excelled on fine motor movements as compared with the Brazilian children. What does this show?

The activities favored for children and those children therefore practice and master vary with cultural context.

[7.1 Motor Development] Advances in gross motor skills help children move about and develop a sense of mastery of their environment, but it is ___ motor skills that permit young children to take responsibility for their own care.

fine motor skills that permit young children to take responsibility for their own care.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Motor development follows the ___ principle

proximodistal. Children gain motor control from the body outward toward the fingers and toes.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Fine motor skills rely on controlling and

coordinating what parts of the body?

small muscles of the body.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] The ability to button a shirt, pour milk into a glass, assemble puzzles, and draw pictures all involve what kind of coordination? As children get better at these skills, they can become more ____ and do more for themselves.

hand–eye and small muscle coordination; independent

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Young children become better at grasping eating utensils and become more self-sufficient at feeding. What does this show about the importance of fine motor skills?

As children get better at these skills, they can become more independent and do more for themselves.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Many fine motor skills are difficult for young children because

they involve both hands and both sides of the brain.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Tying a shoelace is a complex act requiring attention, memory for an intricate series of hand movements, and the dexterity to perform them. Although preschoolers struggle with this task, by what years of age can most children can tie their shoes?

by 5 to 6 years of age

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Dexterity(skill in performing tasks, especially with the hands) is associated with reasoning, and children’s ability to use their fingers to aid in counting predicts their

mathematical skills

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Young children's skills in drawing and writing illustrate the interaction of ___ and ___ domains development.

cognitive and motor domains development.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Drawing reflects fine motor control, planning skills, spatial understanding, and the recognition that pictures can

symbolize objects, people, and events

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Young children’s emerging fine motor skills enable them to draw using large crayons and, eventually, ___. Drawing skills progress through a predictable sequence alongside ___, ___, and brain maturation

pencils; cognitive, motor, and brain maturation

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] When given a crayon, toddlers scribble. By 3 years of age, children‘s scribbles become more ___, often recognizable, pictures.

controlled;

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Most 3-year-olds can draw circles, squares, rectangles, triangles, crosses, and Xs, and they begin to combine shapes into more complex designs. If asked to draw a human figure, 3-year-olds usually draw a ____________________________. Is this drawing different across cultures?

tadpole-like figure with a circle for the head with eyes and sometimes a smiley mouth, and then a line or two beneath to represent the rest of the body. Tadpole-like forms are characteristic of young children’s art in all cultures.

As shown in Figure 7.1, these tadpole-like human figures typically are drawn with arms (and later legs) and legs attached directly to the head.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Between 3 and 4 years of age, young children begin to understand the ______ function of drawings, and even when drawings appear to be nothing more than scribbles, young children often ______________________________________.

representational; young children often label them as representing a particular object and remember the label

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Between ages 4 and 5, children’s drawings loosely begin to depict actual objects, demonstrating the convergence of

fine motor skills and the cognitive development of representational ability.

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] Overall, fine motor skills, such as the ability to copy a design and write letters, predicts

cognitive, reading, academic achievement in preschool, kindergarten, and second grade

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] What fine motor skill develops at age 2-3?

Unzips large zippers, puts on and removes some clothing, uses a spoon

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] What fine motor skill develops at age 3-4?

Serves food, can work large buttons, copies vertical line and circle, uses scissors

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] What fine motor skill develops at age 4-5?

Uses scissors to cut along a line, uses fork effectively, copies simple shapes and some letters

[7.1 Fine Motor Skills] What fine motor skill develops at age 5-6?

Ties shoes, uses knife to cut soft food, copies numbers and simple words

[7.1 Brain Development] Early childhood is a period of rapid brain growth, but ____ occurs at a slower pace than infancy.

synaptogenesis

[7.1 Brain Development] The increase in synapses and connections among brain regions helps the brain to reach __% of its adult weight by age _

90%of its adult weight by age 5

[7.1 Brain Development] In early childhood, the greatest increases in cortical surface area are in the ___ and ____ cortex, which play a role in

frontal and temporal cortex; thinking, memory, language, and planning

[7.1 Brain Development] Children’s brains tend to grow in ___, with very rapid periods of growth followed by little growth or even reductions in volume with ___ ___.

spurts, synaptic pruning

[7.1 Brain Development] Little-used synapses are pruned in response to experience, an important part of neurological development that leads to more efficient thought. The natural forming and pruning of synapses enable the human brain to demonstrate ___, the ability to change its organization and function in response to experience

plasticity

[7.1 Brain Development] What is plasticity?

the ability to for the human brain to change its organization and function in response to experience