326 Final

AMP + ATP --> 2 ADP
adds the phosphate to amp to make adp

adeylate kinase

hexokinase is where? does what?

everywhere, quickly generate atp

glucokinase is where? does what?

only in liver, brings in glucose from the blood

glucokinase induced by?

insulin and glucose

hexokinase is induced by

its not induced

is glucokinase or hexokinase inhibited by g6p?

hexokinase

main form of glucose and amino acids? why?

D form, optical activity, it is most recognised by enzymes

What is the D-form of amino acids?

The one not found in nature, mirror image of L-form amino acids

what makes it so that fibre cannot be broken down?

beta 1,4 linkage

starches are digested by? into what?

alpha-amylase, into maltose, maltotriose, and isomaltose

sucrose is digested by? into what?

sucrase, into fructose and glucose

lactose is digested by? into what?

lactase, glucose and galactose

maltose is digested by? into what?

maltase, into 2 glucoses

what breaks down maltose and maltotriose from starches? into what?

maltase, into glucose

what breaks down isomaltose from starches? into what?

alpha-dextrinase/isomaltase, into glucose

ability to digest lactose increases or decreases with age?

decreases

impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase

lactose intolerance

Absorption of Glu, Gal with Na+ against conc. gradient

SGLT-1, then GLUT 2 into the bloodstream

What transporter absorbs glucose through facilitated diffusion?

GLUT 2, then GLUT 2 again into the bloodstream

What transported absorbs fructose through facilitated diffusion?

GLUT 5, then GLUT 2 into the blood

Which transporter is exhibited in red blood cells and during pregnancy growth, as well as across blood tissue barriers

GLUT 1

Which glucose transporter is involved with neurons

GLUT 3

Which glucose transporter is involved with skeletal muscle, heart, and adipocytes, insulin regulated

GLUT 4

Which glucose transporter is active in the kidney and liver

GLUT 9

PEP to pyruvate, is the rate limiting factor and determines the rate of glycolysis

pyruvate kinase

vitamins involved in pyruvate->acetyl coA

Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid

pyruvate->acetyl coA reaction also known as

PDH reaction

TPP Cofactor

Thiamin

FAD cofactor

Riboflavin

NAD cofactor

niacin

CoA cofactor

pantothenic acid

pyruvate dehydrogenase is inhibited by the elevation of?

at/dp, nad/h, coa/acetylcoa, PDK1

During oxidation phosphorylation, hydrogen ions go down through an enzyme from higher concentration to lower concentration and across this, making ATP.

hydrogen ion gradient

what enzyme commits glucose to glycolosis?

phosphofructokinase

what enzyme makes pyruvate?

pyruvate kinase

What can the enzyme do to the bonds of a substrate? Why?

The enzyme can stretch them to lower the activation energy of the reaction

Glucagon and epinephrine trigger

CAMP Synthesis

CAMP Synthesis shuts down what?

shuts down glucose synthesis

What are FFAs, what do they do?

Free fatty acids, raise blood pressure and insulin resistance

Hexokinase acts on?

glucose, mannose, fructose

Glucokinase acts on?

Just glucose

happens by accident, process by which certain cells can engulf and incorporate droplets of fluid

pinocytosis

To polymerase sugars, what reaction occurs and what is formed

Condensation reaction, glycosidic linkage

What are glycoproteins

Proteins made by the rough yard, glycosylated in the Golgi body, and embedded in the lipid bilayer

What do glycoproteins do to proteins

Protein folding and protein stability

What surrounds the oocyte during fertilization

Zona pellucida

What produces insulin and glucagon to maintain homeostasis

Pan

t/f skeletal muscle is metabolically active

t

where is pepsin most active

stomach

where are most other enzymes active

intestines

What percentage of amino acids do we absorb in small peptide form

76%

What can happen if you over supplement a specific amino acid

It can inhibit the absorption of other amino acids

Where can the amino acid carbon skeleton be used? What is that energy process called?

In the liver for ATP production and gluconeogenesis

What are the 9 essential amino acids?

PVT. TIM H(a)LL: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, leucine, lysine

What are the three semi central amino acids

CAT: cystine, arginine, tyrosine

What are the eight non essential amino acids

GAGSAPA Glutamate Aspartate Glutamine, Serine, Alanine, Proline, Asparagine

What is phenylketonuria

Cannot convert phenylalanine into tyrosine

What happens when you cannot convert phenylalanine to tyrosine

You reach toxic levels of phenylalanine, which can lead to brain damage, especially at birth

What structures do non-polar amino acids have

aromatic rings

What structure do polar amino acids have

a charged OH, S, or N2

What's the difference between deamination and transamination

deamination is the removal of the NH3 group, and transamination is the transfer of the amine group to another molecule

When is a bountiful amino acid that is deaminated often

Glutamate

What if vitamin is very important what DEamination

Vitamin B6

What ends up happening to catabolic amino acids, and where does that happen

They are mostly excreted IN urea, or excreted in the intestines

What three things happen to anabolic amino acids

They are used as energy, they are excreted as carbon dioxide, they become glucose or ketone bodies, or fatty acids

Where is most AST expressed?

The heart

What is indicative of inflammatory liver disease when elevated

ALT

Where does the whole urea cycle take place?

In the liver

When a peripheral part of the body needs to send excess nitrogen to the liver, In what two forms is it sent in? What happens to the two forms?

Glutamine and alanine, the ammonia is excreted through the urea cycle and the carbon skeletons are used as fuel

How much ATP does the urea cycle use, and where does it come from?

Four ATP, comes from the coupled TCA cycle and electron transport chain

What can the carbon skeletons of glucogenic amino acids be converted into

Pyruvate or TCA cycle intermediates

What can carbon skeletons of the ketogenic amino acids be converted into

Acetyl coA

Which two amino acids are related to succinyl co-a

Valine and methionine

What are the three chemicals that make up ketone bodies

Acetone, acetoacetic acid, beta hydroxybutyrate

Ketoacidosis is a common symptom for which group of people

Diabetics

are whey and soy fast or slow parents

fast

Is casing a fast or slow protein

Slow

Which hormones stimulate protein degradation

Glucagon and cortisol

Which two things further insulin increase

Higher glucose and branch chain amino acids

What is a holoenzyme

The combination of a enzyme and a coenzyme

What is histidine important for

Allergic reactions

What is glutamine and asparagine important for

purines and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA synthesis

What are glutamate cystine and glycine important for

Glutathione, an important antioxidant

What is Tyrosine important for

phenylalanine synthesis

What are arginine and glycine important for

Creatine, muscle energy

What is Tyrosine important for

Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, metabolic regulation

What is serine important for

Phospholipid polar head groups

What is Arginine important for

Muscle relaxation, blood pressure and immune function

What is glutathione

Not a protein even though it contains amino acid, functions as an antioxidant and also transport amino acids, and is sensitive and proportional to protein intake

What is carnitine

Carnitine is found in meat and is also produced within our own body with vitamin C and iron, it is involved in the intestines and is absorbed either through pathogen diffusion or through sodium dependence active transport, it's important for energy balance

What can a choline deficiency cause

Fatty liver and hepatic necrosis

What's another word for semi essential amino acids

Conditionally essential

What are the three branch chain amino acids, why?

leucine, lysine, valine, because the side chain is branched

What percentage of the liver's energy comes from amino acid metabolism

50%

What are all babies tested for at birth?

PKU

Why is glutamine helpful with transporting ammonia

glutamine can hold two nitrogen, so it's helpful and transporting ammonia to be excreted in the urea cycle,

What can be a cause of trouble deaminating amino acids?

Vitamin B6 deficiency

In what form is glucose stored in the liver

Glycogen

Which amino acids are only ketogenic

Leucine and lysine

gluconeogenesis involves which amino acid

Alanine