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AMP + ATP --> 2 ADP adds the phosphate to amp to make adp
adeylate kinase
hexokinase is where? does what?
everywhere, quickly generate atp
glucokinase is where? does what?
only in liver, brings in glucose from the blood
glucokinase induced by?
insulin and glucose
hexokinase is induced by
its not induced
is glucokinase or hexokinase inhibited by g6p?
hexokinase
main form of glucose and amino acids? why?
D form, optical activity, it is most recognised by enzymes
What is the D-form of amino acids?
The one not found in nature, mirror image of L-form amino acids
what makes it so that fibre cannot be broken down?
beta 1,4 linkage
starches are digested by? into what?
alpha-amylase, into maltose, maltotriose, and isomaltose
sucrose is digested by? into what?
sucrase, into fructose and glucose
lactose is digested by? into what?
lactase, glucose and galactose
maltose is digested by? into what?
maltase, into 2 glucoses
what breaks down maltose and maltotriose from starches? into what?
maltase, into glucose
what breaks down isomaltose from starches? into what?
alpha-dextrinase/isomaltase, into glucose
ability to digest lactose increases or decreases with age?
decreases
impaired ability to digest lactose due to reduced amounts of the enzyme lactase
lactose intolerance
Absorption of Glu, Gal with Na+ against conc. gradient
SGLT-1, then GLUT 2 into the bloodstream
What transporter absorbs glucose through facilitated diffusion?
GLUT 2, then GLUT 2 again into the bloodstream
What transported absorbs fructose through facilitated diffusion?
GLUT 5, then GLUT 2 into the blood
Which transporter is exhibited in red blood cells and during pregnancy growth, as well as across blood tissue barriers
GLUT 1
Which glucose transporter is involved with neurons
GLUT 3
Which glucose transporter is involved with skeletal muscle, heart, and adipocytes, insulin regulated
GLUT 4
Which glucose transporter is active in the kidney and liver
GLUT 9
PEP to pyruvate, is the rate limiting factor and determines the rate of glycolysis
pyruvate kinase
vitamins involved in pyruvate->acetyl coA
Thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid
pyruvate->acetyl coA reaction also known as
PDH reaction
TPP Cofactor
Thiamin
FAD cofactor
Riboflavin
NAD cofactor
niacin
CoA cofactor
pantothenic acid
pyruvate dehydrogenase is inhibited by the elevation of?
at/dp, nad/h, coa/acetylcoa, PDK1
During oxidation phosphorylation, hydrogen ions go down through an enzyme from higher concentration to lower concentration and across this, making ATP.
hydrogen ion gradient
what enzyme commits glucose to glycolosis?
phosphofructokinase
what enzyme makes pyruvate?
pyruvate kinase
What can the enzyme do to the bonds of a substrate? Why?
The enzyme can stretch them to lower the activation energy of the reaction
Glucagon and epinephrine trigger
CAMP Synthesis
CAMP Synthesis shuts down what?
shuts down glucose synthesis
What are FFAs, what do they do?
Free fatty acids, raise blood pressure and insulin resistance
Hexokinase acts on?
glucose, mannose, fructose
Glucokinase acts on?
Just glucose
happens by accident, process by which certain cells can engulf and incorporate droplets of fluid
pinocytosis
To polymerase sugars, what reaction occurs and what is formed
Condensation reaction, glycosidic linkage
What are glycoproteins
Proteins made by the rough yard, glycosylated in the Golgi body, and embedded in the lipid bilayer
What do glycoproteins do to proteins
Protein folding and protein stability
What surrounds the oocyte during fertilization
Zona pellucida
What produces insulin and glucagon to maintain homeostasis
Pan
t/f skeletal muscle is metabolically active
t
where is pepsin most active
stomach
where are most other enzymes active
intestines
What percentage of amino acids do we absorb in small peptide form
76%
What can happen if you over supplement a specific amino acid
It can inhibit the absorption of other amino acids
Where can the amino acid carbon skeleton be used? What is that energy process called?
In the liver for ATP production and gluconeogenesis
What are the 9 essential amino acids?
PVT. TIM H(a)LL: phenylalanine, valine, threonine, tryptophan, isoleucine, methionine, histidine, leucine, lysine
What are the three semi central amino acids
CAT: cystine, arginine, tyrosine
What are the eight non essential amino acids
GAGSAPA Glutamate Aspartate Glutamine, Serine, Alanine, Proline, Asparagine
What is phenylketonuria
Cannot convert phenylalanine into tyrosine
What happens when you cannot convert phenylalanine to tyrosine
You reach toxic levels of phenylalanine, which can lead to brain damage, especially at birth
What structures do non-polar amino acids have
aromatic rings
What structure do polar amino acids have
a charged OH, S, or N2
What's the difference between deamination and transamination
deamination is the removal of the NH3 group, and transamination is the transfer of the amine group to another molecule
When is a bountiful amino acid that is deaminated often
Glutamate
What if vitamin is very important what DEamination
Vitamin B6
What ends up happening to catabolic amino acids, and where does that happen
They are mostly excreted IN urea, or excreted in the intestines
What three things happen to anabolic amino acids
They are used as energy, they are excreted as carbon dioxide, they become glucose or ketone bodies, or fatty acids
Where is most AST expressed?
The heart
What is indicative of inflammatory liver disease when elevated
ALT
Where does the whole urea cycle take place?
In the liver
When a peripheral part of the body needs to send excess nitrogen to the liver, In what two forms is it sent in? What happens to the two forms?
Glutamine and alanine, the ammonia is excreted through the urea cycle and the carbon skeletons are used as fuel
How much ATP does the urea cycle use, and where does it come from?
Four ATP, comes from the coupled TCA cycle and electron transport chain
What can the carbon skeletons of glucogenic amino acids be converted into
Pyruvate or TCA cycle intermediates
What can carbon skeletons of the ketogenic amino acids be converted into
Acetyl coA
Which two amino acids are related to succinyl co-a
Valine and methionine
What are the three chemicals that make up ketone bodies
Acetone, acetoacetic acid, beta hydroxybutyrate
Ketoacidosis is a common symptom for which group of people
Diabetics
are whey and soy fast or slow parents
fast
Is casing a fast or slow protein
Slow
Which hormones stimulate protein degradation
Glucagon and cortisol
Which two things further insulin increase
Higher glucose and branch chain amino acids
What is a holoenzyme
The combination of a enzyme and a coenzyme
What is histidine important for
Allergic reactions
What is glutamine and asparagine important for
purines and pyrimidines in DNA and RNA synthesis
What are glutamate cystine and glycine important for
Glutathione, an important antioxidant
What is Tyrosine important for
phenylalanine synthesis
What are arginine and glycine important for
Creatine, muscle energy
What is Tyrosine important for
Epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine, metabolic regulation
What is serine important for
Phospholipid polar head groups
What is Arginine important for
Muscle relaxation, blood pressure and immune function
What is glutathione
Not a protein even though it contains amino acid, functions as an antioxidant and also transport amino acids, and is sensitive and proportional to protein intake
What is carnitine
Carnitine is found in meat and is also produced within our own body with vitamin C and iron, it is involved in the intestines and is absorbed either through pathogen diffusion or through sodium dependence active transport, it's important for energy balance
What can a choline deficiency cause
Fatty liver and hepatic necrosis
What's another word for semi essential amino acids
Conditionally essential
What are the three branch chain amino acids, why?
leucine, lysine, valine, because the side chain is branched
What percentage of the liver's energy comes from amino acid metabolism
50%
What are all babies tested for at birth?
PKU
Why is glutamine helpful with transporting ammonia
glutamine can hold two nitrogen, so it's helpful and transporting ammonia to be excreted in the urea cycle,
What can be a cause of trouble deaminating amino acids?
Vitamin B6 deficiency
In what form is glucose stored in the liver
Glycogen
Which amino acids are only ketogenic
Leucine and lysine
gluconeogenesis involves which amino acid
Alanine
Note
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