BUS 272 chapter 4- Theories of Motivation

Motivation

process that accounts for an individual’s intensity, direction and persistence of effort toward reaching a goal

Intensity-

how hard a person tries and quality of effort

Persistence

how long a person can maintain effort

Theory X

(negative); employees that dislike work will attempt to avoid it and must be coerced, threatened or controlled with punishment to achieve goals

Theory Y

(positive); employees that like work are creative, seek responsibility and exercise self-direction and self-control

Intrinsic motivators

person’s internal desires to do something because of interest, challenge and personal satisfaction

Extrinsic motivators

external motivators like pay, bonuses, tangible rewards

Needs Theories

types of needs that must be met to motivate individuals

Process Theories

help us understand the actual ways in which we and others can be motivated

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

hierarchy of 5 needs: physiology, safety, social, esteem and self-actualization

what is the unofficial sixth needs according to maslow

intrinsic values

self-actualization

the drive to become what a person is capable of becoming

lower-order needs

physiological and safety

higher-order needs

social (belonging), self-esteem and self-actualization

Two-factor theory (motivation-hygiene theory

relates intrinsic factors to job satisfaction and relates extrinsic factors to dissatisfaction

Abraham Maslow

Maslow’s hierarchy of needs

Frederick Herzberg

two factor theory

what factor leads to job satisfaction according to two factor theory?

motivators

what factor leads to job dissatisfaction according to two factor theory?

absence of hygiene factors

hygiene factors

quality of supervision, pay, company policies, physical work conditions, relationships with others and job security

what happens when hygiene factors are adequate?

people are neither dissatisfied nor satisfied; do not increase motivation

McClelland’s theory of needs

achievement, power and affiliation are three important needs that help explain motivation

need for achievement (nAch)

drive to excel, achieve in relation to a set of standards and strive to succeed

need for power (nPow)

need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise

need for affiliation (nAff)

desire for friendly and interpersonal relationships

summary of needs theories

when individuals have needs that are unsatisfied, it results in motivation

how do needs theories differ?

differ in the types of needs they consider and whether they propose a hierarchy of needs or a list of needs

process theories

focus on the broader picture of how one motivates oneself and others

4 types of process theories

expectancy theory, goal-setting theory, self-efficacy theory, reinforcement theory

expectancy theory

employees will be motivated to exert a high level of effort when they believe that effort leads to good performance, good performance leads to organizational rewards (salary/intrinsic rewards), rewards satisfy employees’ personal goals

3 focuses of expectancy theory

expectancy, instrumentality and valence

expectancy (effort-performance relationship)

belief that effort is related to performance; people will only be motivated if they perceive a link between their effort and performance

instrumentality (performance-reward relationship)

belief that performance is related to rewards ex: having seniority and “kissing up” to the boss

negative instrumentality

high performance reduces chances of desired outcome

valence

value a person places on a reward

self-generated feedback

employees are able to monitor their own progress or receive feedback from the task

effective feedback

employee perceives the appraisal as fair, manager as sincere and climate as constructive; leads to positive responses and determination to correct performance

Victor Vroom

expectancy theory

goal-setting theory

specific and difficult goals with feedback lead to higher performance

management by objectives

setting tangible, verifiable and measurable goals

4 components of MBO (management by objectives)

goal specificity, participation in decision-making, explicit time period and performance feedback

4 ways goal setting motivates-

1. directs attention

2. regulate effort

3. increase persistence

4. encourage the development of strategies and action plans

promotion focus

striving for goals through advancements and accomplishments

prevention focus

striving for goals by fulfilling duties and obligations

self-efficacy theory

belief in one’s ability to perform a task influences their behaviour

4 ways self-efficacy can be increased-

1. enactive mastery

2. vicarious modelling

3. verbal persuasion

4. arousal

Enactive mastery

gaining relevant experience with the task or job

Vicarious modelling

becoming more confident because you see someone else doing the task

verbal persuasion

becoming more confident because someone convinces you that you have the skills necessary

Arousal

an energized state so the person gets psyched up

do goal setting theory and self-efficacy theory compete with one another?

No, the complement each other because setting difficult goals for people shows that you have confidence in them

reinforcement theory

behaviour is a function of its consequences; ignores the person’s inner state and focuses on what happens when they act

operant conditioning theory

component of reinforcement theory that states that people learn to behave to get something they want or don’t want

behaviourism

behaviour follows stimuli in a relatively unthinking manner

4 ways to shape behaviour-

1. positive reinforcement- something pleasant

2. negative reinforcement-something unpleasant

3. punishment-causing unpleasant condition in attempt to eliminate undesirable behaviour

4. extinction-eliminating reinforcement that is maintaining a behaviour

continuous reinforcement

reinforces the desired behaviour every time it is demonstrated

intermittent reinforcement

desired behaviour is reinforced often enough to make the behaviour worth repeating but not every time it is demonstrated

4 types of intermittent schedules of reinforcement-

1. fixed-interval

2. variable-interval

3. fixed-ratio

4. variable-ratio

fixed interval schedule

reward is given at fixed time intervals (after a set time)

variable-interval schedule

reward is given at variable time intervals (after a random time)

fixed-ratio schedule

reward is given at fixed amounts of output (after a set number of output)

variable-ratio schedule

reward is given at amounts of output (after a random number of output)

Equity theory

people compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of others then respond to eliminate any inequities

4 referent comparisons an employee can use-

1. self-inside- employee’s experiences in a situation inside the organization

2. self-outside- employee’s experiences in a situation outside the organization

3. other-inside- another person inside the employee’s organization

4. other-outside- another person outside the employee’s organization

6 ways to reduce inequalities-

1. change inputs

2. change outcomes

3. adjust perceptions of self

4. adjust perceptions of others

5. choose a different referent

6. leave the field

organizational justice

overall perception of what is fair in the workplace

4 components of organizational justice

1. distributive justice

2. procedural justice

3. informational justice

4. interpersonal justice

distributive justice

perceived fairness of the amount and allocation of rewards

procedural justice

perceived fairness of the process used to determine the distribution of rewards

informational justice

degree employees are provided truthful explanations for decisions

interpersonal justice

degree employees are treated with dignity and respect

self-determination theory

motivation is concerned with the beneficial effects of intrinsic motivation and the harmful effects of extrinsic motivation

cognitive evaluation theory

offering extrinsic rewards for work effort that were previously rewarding intrinsically decrease the overall level of motivation

self-concordance

degree a person’s reasons for pursuing a goal are consistent with the person’s interest and values

4 rewards that increase intrinsic motivation-

1. sense of choice (use one’s own judgement)

2. sense of competence (accomplishment)

3. sense of meaningfulness (feeling good about what they're doing)

4. sense of progress (feeling of making progress)

4 sets of behaviour to build intrinsic rewards-

1. leading for choice (empowering employees and delegating tasks)

2. leading for competence (supporting and coaching employees)

3. leading for meaningfulness (inspiring employees and modelling desired behaviour)

4. leading for progress (monitoring and rewarding employees)

job engagement

investment of an employee’s physical, cognitive and emotional energies into job performance