ap psych unit 2

i refuse to fail my summatives bruh

memory

the retention of information or experience over time

encoding

process of memory that involves first taking in the information

selective attention

only paying attention to some things

divided attention

paying attention to multiple things at once

sustained attention

giving a task your ENTIRE attention

levels of processing

a continuum of memory processing from shallow to intermediate to deeper; progressively producing better memory

elaboration

formation of a number of different connections around a stimulus at any given level of encoding; self-reference

storage

the retention of information over time and how this information is represented in memory

sensory memory

kind of memory that lasts a fraction of a second up to a few seconds

iconic - auditory, several seconds

echonic - visual, fraction of a second

short-term memory

kind of memory that lasts up to 30 seconds, eventually moves to longterm

working memory

a combination of short term memory and attention that allows individuals to hold information temporarily as they perform cognitive tasks, about 7 chunks at once, “mental blackboard”

rehearsal

a cognitive process that involves repeating information to improve memory and learning

long-term memory

kind of memory that can last up to a lifetime

can be split into explicit and implicit memory, which can be further divided into episodic, semantic, and procedural memory

explicit memory

subdivision of long-term memory that contains life episodes and knowledge about the world

can be further divided into episodic and semantic memory

episodic memory

subcategory of explicit, and thus long-term memory, that contains memory of one’s life events

semantic memory

subcategory of explicit memory, and thus long-term memory, that contains one’s knowledge about the world (tied to language)

implicit memory

subdivision of long-term memory that involves skills and priming

procedural memory

subcategory of implicit memory, and thus long-term memory, that involves one’s motor skills

priming

activating information already stored to help remember or learn new information better and faster

schemas

pre-existing mental concept or framework that helps in organization and interpreting information

confabulation

filling in gaps in memory

scripts

schemas for events

long term potentiation

a persistent strengthening of synapses based on recent patterns of activity

if 2 neurons are activated at the same time, memory may be strengthened

connectionism

memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons

method of loci

memorization technique where the items intended on being remembered are associated with a created mental image or mnemonic device

retrieval

information that was retained in memory exits storage

encoding specificity principle

principle that states that memory retrieval is improved when encoding context is the same as the retrieval context

tied closely to context-dependent memory and state-dependent learning

serial position effect

the tendency to recall items at the beginning and end of a list rather than those in the middle

combination of the primacy and recency effects

primacy effect

explains why we tend to remember items more towards the beginning of some sort of list

part of serial position effect

recency effect

explains why we tend to remember items toward the end of any kind of list

part of the serial position effect

recall

retrieving previously learned information from your brain

ex.) answering an SAQ

recognition

identifying previously learned information

ex.) answering a MCQ

flashbulb memory

emotionally significant events recalled with more accuracy and vivid memory

ex.) “what were you doing on 9/11”, weddings, birth of a child, etc.

repression

totally blocking out a memory, often associated with trauma

motivated forgetting

a specific memory that is so painful or miserable to remember that it’s totally intolerable

ex.) choosing to not thinking about a crash, war, etc.

eyewitness memory

one’s episodic memory for a specific event, usually associated with crime

research has indicated much distortion, bias, and inaccuracy in memory

encoding failure

when a memory didn’t enter long term memory

ex.) specific details on a penny, that information never got in because we just don’t pay attention to that

interference

memories aren’t lost from storage, other information just gets in the way

proactive and retroactive

proactive interference

type of interference where material learned earlier that disrupts material learned later

ex.) writing down the previous year for the entire month of january

retroactive interference

type of interference where material learned later disrupts material learned earlier

ex.) calling an old friend the name of a newer friend, because they have a similar name

decay theory

memories and their details fade over time

autobiographical memory

recollection of life experiences (episodic memory)

three-level hierchial structure

the three levels that autobiographical memory is categorized into:

1.) life time periods (decades, years)

2.) general events (weeks, days)

3.) event-specific (days, hours, minutes)

reminiscence bump

adults remember more from their 2nd and 3rd decades lived

perspective memory

remembering something that hasn’t happened yet; the future

ex.) remembering to pick something up from the store later

retrospective memory

remembering things from the past

tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon (tot)

when something’s on the “tip of the tongue” but can’t quite think of it, comes back to you later, can’t quite pull it out of memory

anterograde amnesia

type of amnesia where one can’t retain new information

retrograde amnesia

type of amnesia where one loses memory of past events

concepts

mental categories that are used to group objects, events, and characteristics (generalization)

ex.) apples and oranges are both fruits, volleyball and soccer are both sports

prototype model

when one evaluates if an item reflects a specific concept, they compare it with items in that category and look for a “family resemblance”

ex.) robins and sparrows must be birds, because they fly, sing, and build nests just like birds

cognition

the way in which information is processed and manipulated in remembering, thinking, and knowing

thinking

the process of manipulating information mentally by forming concepts, solving problems, making decisions, and reflecting critically or creatively

problem-solving

the mental process of finding an appropriate way to attain a goal when the goal is not yet readily achievable

sub-goals

intermediate goals or problems devised to put the individual in a better position for reaching the final goal or solution

algorithms

strategies, including formulas, instructions, and the testing of all possible solutions, that guarantee a solution to a problem

heuristics

shortcut strategies or guidelines that suggest a solution to a problem but do not guarantee an answer

fixation

using a prior strategy and failing to look at a problem from a fresh point of view

functional fixedness

failing to solve a problem as a result of fixation on a thing’s usual functions

reasoning

the mental activity of transforming information to reach conclusions

inductive reasoning

reasoning from specific observations to make generalizations

deductive reasoning

reasoning from a general case that is known to be true to a specific instance

kinda like stereotyping

decision making

the mental activity of evaluating alternatives and choosing among them

confirmation bias

the tendency to search for and use information that supports one’s ideas rather than refutes them

hindsight bias

the tendency to report falsely, after the fact, that one has accurately predicted an outcome

availability heuristic

a prediction about the probability of an event based on the ease of recalling or imagining similar events

base rate neglect

the tendency to ignore information about general principles in favor of very specific but vivid information

representativeness heuristic

the tendency to make judgements about group memebership based on physical appearances or the match between a person and one’s stereotype of a group rather than on available base rate information

mindfulness

the state of being alert and mentally present for one’s everyday activities

open-mindedness

the state of being receptive to other ways of looking at things

creativity

the ability to think about something in novel and unusual ways and devise unconventional solutions to problems

divergent thinking

thinking that produces many solutions to the same problems

ex.) brainstorming

convergent thinking

thinking that produces the single best solution to a problem

intelligence

all-purpose ability to do well on cognitive tasks, solve problems, and learn from experience

can differ with culture

validity

the extent to which a test measures what it’s intended to measure

reliability

the extent to which a test yields a consistent, reproducible measure of performance

standardization

the development of uniform procedures for administering and scoring a test, and the creation of norms and performance standards for said test

mental age

an individual’s level of mental development relative to that of others

intelligence quotient

an individual’s mental age divided by chronological age then multiplied by 100

normal distribution

a symmetrical, bell shaped curve, with a majority of the scores falling in the middle and few on either extremes

the bell curve!!

culture-fair tests

intelligence tests that are intended to be culturally unbiased

(this is impossible)

heritability

the proportion of observable differences in a group that can be explained by differences in the genes of the group’s members

gifted

possessing high intelligence (IQ 130+) and/or superior talent in a particular area

intellectual disability

a condition of limited mental ability that affects an individuals functioning in everyday life

cognitive apprasial

interpreting the events and experiences in one’s life as harmful, threatening, or challenging and determining whether one has the resources to cope effectively

coping

managing taxing circumstances, expending effort to solve life’s problems and seeking to master or reduce stress

cognitive reapprasial

regulating one’s feelings about an experience by reinterpreting that experience or thinking about it in a different way or from a different angle

flynn effect

the observation that scores on intelligence tests worldwide increases over time