Soc 110 Midterm, Soc 110 HW Assignment 1 , Soc 110 HW Assignment 2, Soc 110 HW Assignment 3 , Soc 110 HW Assignment 4

According to Zerubavel (1985), what are the origins of the Jewish week? In what sense was the seven-day week a "Jewish invention" (p.11)?

According to Zerubavel, the Jewish week comes from the biblical account of the creation of the world (6-7). The Old Testament states that God used the seventh day to rest. The seven-day week is a "Jewish invention" as it pays no attention to the moon cycle or any other natural cycle (11). In Babylonia.

What is the astrological week? In what sense is it based on the "planets"? Where did it come from and how did it spread throughout the world? (Note: the word "planets" here has a different meaning from the use of the term in 21st Century societies).

The astrological week is the week based on the seven planets. This week is based on the planets because ancient Babylonian astronomers identified seven planets and created the week after them (16). It came from ancient Babylonian times and spread throughout the world after Alexander the Great's conquest of western Asia (14).

How did the Jewish week and the astrological week get combined into the seven-day week we have today? (In your answer, note what group of people combined the two). After that, what group (or groups) spread the concept of the seven-day week throughout the world?

The Jewish week and the astrological week were combined into the seven-day week by the Church. The growing popularity of astrology in Rome helped spread the seven-day week throughout the Roman Empire. Then, Christianity arrived and further expanded the concept of the seven-day week (20). Days named after the astrological week.

What is a calendrical contrast? How did early Christians and Moslems modify the seven- day week? Why did they change the week in these ways (i.e., what was the motivation behind it)?

Zerubavel (1985) argued that his study showed that the seven-day week "is not a part of nature, but, rather, a cultural artifact that rests on social convention alone" (p. 4). From what you read, how does his study show this? In other words, how does he show that the existence of the week, and the fact that it has seven days, are not a "part of nature" (p.4)?

Zerubavel shows that the existence of the week, which has seven days, is not a "part of nature" because people made it this way through their beliefs and religions. The study shows how it took various civilizations to create the seven-day week.

What is a calendrical contrast? How did early Christians and Moslems modify the seven- day week? Why did they change the week in these ways (i.e., what was the motivation behind it)?

A calendrical contrast is a pattern that is unique to a group of people (22). Early Christians chose Sunday as their holy day, while Mohammed chose Friday as the holy day for Moslems (26). They did this to establish their own exclusive identity and be distinguished from each other.

What are facts? What are opinions? How can opinions get in the way of, or prevent, our understanding of facts?

Facts are things that can be demonstrated to be true without any bias (128). Opinions are "our views on issues and sentiments about people and events" (130). Opinions can get in the way of our understanding of facts when there is a strong opinion about a certain issue; the opinion seems like a fact.

Which of the following statements are facts, and which are opinions? How can you tell

the difference? (For this question, you can use Google or another search engine to 'fact- check').

a. Movies today are not as good as they were in the past.

b. People in a crowded movie theater should be quiet and not eat loudly

c. It is illegal to yell "Fire" in a crowded movie theater.

a. Opinion, b. Opinion, c. Fact

You can tell the difference between these statements by paying close attention to the words they use.

What was the "corporate revolution" that occurred around 1900 (Roy 1997, p. 4)? More broadly, how was "the form and organization of property" transformed by the development of corporations (p.6)? [Hint: the particular features of corporate property are discussed in various places in the reading, not just the first few pages.]

"The industrial world of manufacturing and the financial world of stocks and bonds merged together" (4). The development of corporations socialized property, making it owned by many individuals through stocks and bonds (6). The rise of manufacturing corporations that are privately managed.

What is efficiency theory? How does it account for why American capitalism became organized around corporations?

Efficiency theory is "the prevailing explanation of change in the organization of the economy" (6). American capitalism became organized around corporations because administrative coordination became more profitable through large capital markets.

How does Roy (1997) critique efficiency theory? What is his alternative framework for explaining the origin of the large corporation? [Hint: Roy (1997) critiques it in multiple places in the reading].

Roy (1997) critiques efficiency theory by saying that it does not properly explain the rise of large corporations. He says it only provides a functional logic, which is problematic because it only explains "change in terms of consequences" (9). His alternative framework for explaining the origin of the large corporation are the concepts of power, property, and institutions (6). Power theory and power dynamics. Companies turn into corporations in order to protect themselves from workers thus keeping their power over them.

What were the "three eras" in the development of the corporation (Roy, 1997, p. 16)? Note how the corporation differed in each era. (Note: Chapter Three [pages 41-77] is about the first era. The remainder of the book covers the other eras, but we won't read the rest for this class.)

The "three eras" in the development of the corporation were the early 19th century, the middle of the 19th century, and the end 19th century to the early 20th century. In the first era, the corporation was a quasi-government agency. Later, the corporation became a private but separate from manufacturing. By the third era, it merged corporate institutions with manufacturing (17).

Based on Chapter 3 (pp. 41-77), what were the key features of corporations in the first era? Where did they come from? In your answer, note the ways in which the "quasi- public" corporations of early U.S. history (p. 41) differ from the private corporations that exist today. (Hint: To answer this, you will need to understand the distinction between public and private. This distinction is also discussed in this chapter).

The key features of corporations in the first era were limited liability, perpetual life, parcellized ownership, the enumeration of powers in a charter, board directors, and the election of officers (76). These features came from the lack of support they received from the markets and to establish accountability to the public. The quasi-public corporations worked within an institution that served the public good, while the private corporations that exist today are protected by the government and only legally accountable to their owners (41).

What factors led to the "erosion of the public corporation" in the mid-19 -century U.S. (Roy 1997, p. 71) and to the creation of the private business corporation that exists today?

The factors that led to the end of the public corporation in the mid 19th century and to the creation of the private business corporation that exists today were the split between the political movements against corporations and the financial crisis in 1837 (72). Andrew Jackson was president during this time. The corporation was lost because southern democrats wanted to protect slavery.

What is a scholarly source? What kinds of sources are scholarly sources? How can you tell if a source is scholarly or not?

A scholarly source is a source that is written by researchers and presents their original work, often peer-reviewed. Peer-reviewed articles and books are scholarly sources. You can tell if a source is scholarly or not by looking at the database. If it is peer-reviewed and includes references, then it is a scholarly source.

What is a primary source? What is a secondary source? Thinking about historical research in particular, what kinds of sources (newspaper articles, scholarly books, etc.) would be primary sources vs secondary sources?

A primary source is a source based on first-hand information. A secondary source is a source that analyzes, critiques, summarizes, or reviews a primary source. Novels, diaries, and autobiographies are examples of primary sources. Most scholarly book and articles are secondary sources because they analyze primary sources.

What is a necessary cause? How can we judge whether a necessary cause is more or less important for explaining an outcome?

A necessary cause is "the claim that an outcome would not have occurred if the cause had been absent, though the cause's presence did not guarantee the outcome" (118). The importance of a necessary cause can be judged using subjective criteria and empirical criteria. "Necessary causes are more important to the extent that they are present only when the outcome is present" (119).

What is a sufficient cause? What is a necessary and sufficient cause? How do you think these two ideas are distinct from necessary causes?

A sufficient cause is "one whose presence inevitably leads to the outcome, though the outcome can occur through other means as well" (121). Necessary and sufficient causes are causes that are both necessary and sufficient for a given outcome. These causes are quite rare in the social sciences.

What are INUS causes? What are the examples of INUS causes that the authors give?

INUS causes are "an insufficient but necessary part of a condition which is itself unnecessary but sufficient for the result" (125). An example of an INUS cause is the democratic pathways in the modern world.

What are SUIN causes? What are the examples of SUIN causes that the authors give?

SUIN causes are "a sufficient but unnecessary part of a factor that is insufficient but necessary for an outcome" (126). An example of a SUIN cause is a nondemocracy.

How were U.S. immigration policies changed in the 1960s? In your answer, be sure to note what the Bracero program was.

The U.S. immigration policies changed in the 1960s because of the Bracero Program, which allowed short-term foreign workers to enter the United States (3).

Since 1955, how has the level of illegal/unauthorized immigration from Mexico changed over time? (Be sure to note when it rose and fell). According to Massey and Pren (2012), how did changes in U.S. immigration policies unintentionally lead to increasing illegal immigration to the U.S.?

The level of illegal immigration from Mexico increased from 1955 to 1985. After 1985, the level of unauthorized immigration fell (4). According to Massey and Pren (2012), the changes in U.S. immigration policies increased illegal immigration to the U.S. "because the temporary labor program had been terminated" (5).

Massey and Pren (2012) argue that there was a 'feedback loop' between border apprehensions and border enforcement that occurred between 1965 and 1995 in the U.S. Describe this feedback loop. In your answer, be sure to:

a. explain how border apprehensions led to stricter enforcement, and vice versa.

b. how this resulted in increasing border apprehensions, "despite the lack of any real increase in illegal migration" after the 1970s (Massey and Pren 2012, p. 9).

The rise of immigration led to border apprehensions and created an anti-immigrant reaction, which only led to stricter enforcement. This created more restrictive immigration laws and border operations to increase the number of Border Patrol agents, which produced more line watch hours and generated more apprehensions (13).

How did the size of the undocumented population in the U.S. change from 1965 to 2010? How did increasing 'border enforcement' unintentionally increase the size of the undocumented population?

The size of the undocumented population in the U.S. increased dramatically from 1965 to 2010. The increase of 'border enforcement' unintentionally increased the size of the undocumented population as migrants shifted to a settled power of migration (17).

How do the authors define the concept of rampage school shooting? Note how their definition is different from other uses of the term "school shooting."

The authors define the concept of rampage school shooting as shootings that "take place on a school-related public stage before an audience; involve multiple victims, some of whom are shot simply for their symbolic significance or at random; and involve one or more shooters who are students or former students of the school" (50). The authors do not include gang violence or any kind of revenge killings in their definition.

What is Newman et al.'s (2004) theory of school shootings? Write a sentence describing each necessary factor.

According to Newman et al.'s (2004) theory of school shootings, there must be a combination of necessary factors to produce these rampage school shootings (229). The first necessary factor is marginality, which places the shooter in a position where they feel marginalized from their peers. The second factor, individual vulnerabilities, can increase the marginality the shooter is experiencing. Cultural scripts, the third necessary factor, is an image or prescription that leads the way to cause an attack. "The fourth necessary factor is a failure of surveillance systems that are intended to identify troubled teens before their problems become extreme" (230). The last necessary factor is gun availability because a shooting cannot occur unless a student has access to a weapon.

How do Newman et al. (2004) "test" their theory of school shootings? In your answer, be sure to describe the datasets of cases that they examined. Note how the datasets were different from one another in the cases that they included.

Newman et al. (2004) tested their theory of school shootings by using three data sets: the CDC national database, the Safe School Initiative report by the U.S. Secret Service and their "our own data set based on media accounts and case studies of other rampage school shootings" (231). These data sets differed in their definitions of school shootings, the methods they used, and in the areas and years they covered.

To what extent is their theory (of the five necessary factors) supported by the evidence that the authors examined?

Their theory showed that not all shooters were loners, but the majority felt marginalized. The theory was able to demonstrate that a large percentage of school shooters suffered from a mental illness and/or came from a dysfunctional family. Cultural scripts helped provide a "template for action" (253). Most school shooters remain under the radar. Gun availability can lead to an increase in school shootings. Necessary factors must be 100%, not just 82%.

What are the "near-miss cases" (Newman et al., 2004, p. 263)? What do the authors find by examining them, and do these cases support their overall theory?

The near-miss cases are cases that did not turn into school shootings because they were handled in an effective manner. They are shootings that were supposed to happen but didn't due to an interception The authors find that these near-miss cases can help provide a better understanding to predict a school shooting.

What is a configuration? Define the concept in general, then describe an example of a configuration from the reading. In your answer, include the outcome that was produced by this configuration. (Hint: There are several examples to choose from).

"A configuration is a specific combination of attributes that is common to a number of cases" (146). A set of circumstances. Military establishment is an example of a configuration from the reading.

What are presence-absence dichotomies? What is a truth table? Based on the example described by Ragin and Amoroso (2014), how do researchers use truth tables to explain why cases have different outcomes?

Presence-absence dichotomies are when casual conditions and outcomes are either present or absent in in each case. Example: There is a school shooting (present) or there are no school shootings (absent). A truth table summarizes a data matrix by sorting cases according to certain combinations of data.

Who are the authors and their writings?

-Zerubavel's (1985) The Seven Day Circle

Nardi's (2017) Critical Thinking

According to Zerubavel (1985), what are the origins of the Jewish week? In what sensewas the seven-day week a "Jewish invention"

The Old Testament stated that the world was created in six days and rested on the seventh day which became the Sabbath. Jewish sages recommended that travelers stick to the 7 day in a week rhythm in order to maintain the traditional practice of observing Sabbath on the 7th day. Jews were advised to celebrate the Feast of First Fruits seven weeks after Passover and a parallel text states that seven sabbaths should be counted instead.

What is the astrological week? In what sense is it based on the "planets"? Where did it come from and how did it spread throughout the world? (Note: the word "planets" here has a different meaning from the use of the term in 21st Century societies)

All of the days of the week are named after planets, for example Monday is the "day of the moon". The rest of the planets include Mars, Mercury, Jupiter, Venus and Saturn. The reason these planets correlate to the days of the week is because ancient astrologers noticed that these planets seemed to move regularly. To separate these celestial bodies from the rest they referred to them as planets which means "to wander".

How did the Jewish week and the astrological week get combined into the seven-day week we have today? (In your answer, note what group of people combined the two). After that, what group (or groups) spread the concept of the seven-day week throughout the world?

Both the Jewish and astrologers created the 7 day week cycle although they differed in their meanings. However, as Christianity was being born, Christians felt the need to separate from the Jewish and create their own identity. Christians began abandoning observing Sabbath on Saturday and rather chose Sunday for their own observance. The Church of Rome began spreading the concept of abandoning the Sabbath however, they chose to keep the Jewish 7 day rhythmic form.

What is a calendrical contrast? How did early Christians and Moslems modify the seven- day week? Why did they change the week in these ways (i.e., what was the motivation behind it)?

Moslems also chose a seven day weekly cycle however, they chose Friday as their day of prayer in order to distinguish themselves from Christians and Jews. Moslems have also considered both Saturday and Sunday as evil. All three of these great monotheistic religions revolve around "peak days" (the original Sabbath), while they all try to distinguish themselves from one another, they ultimately all literally touch one another.

Zerubavel (1985) argued that his study showed that the seven-day week "is not a part of nature, but, rather, a cultural artifact that rests on social convention alone" (p. 4). From what you read, how does his study show this? In other words, how does he show that the existence of the week, and the fact that it has seven days, are not a "part of nature" (p.4)?

The author equates the 7 day rhythmic week as being driven through an "ethnocentric bias" that regulates economic or religious activity. It was also created in order to account for time that is not as frequent as every day but not so infrequent as every month. Humans created rhythmic cycles similar to the week throughout various civilizations in an attempt to break away from being "prisoners of nature"(4). and establish a world and civilization of their own.

What are facts? What are opinions? How can opinions get in the way of, or prevent, our understanding of facts? (Nardi)

Facts are derived from evidence, they use qualitative and quantitative data that can be tested to be true. The dictionary defines it as "a piece of information having an actual existence, an actual occurrence, and an objective reality". Opinions are based around our views and sentiments in regards to people and events. They are subjective and personal. Ideally, facts should provide a basis for our beliefs, however, that is not always the case and oftentimes opinions can determine which facts which we choose to perceive.

Which of the following statements are facts, and which are opinions? How can you tell the difference? (For this question, you can use Google or another search engine to 'fact- check').

a. Movies today are not as good as they were in the past.

b. People in a crowded movie theater should be quiet and not eat loudly.

c. It is illegal to yell "fire" in a crowded movie theater.

Opinion, Opinion, Misinformation

Who are the authors and their writings?

- Massey and Pren's (2012) "The Unintended Consequences of U.S.Immigration Policy,"

Since 1955, how has the level of legal immigration from Mexico to the U.S. changed over time? How has the level of illegal /unauthorized immigration from Mexico changed over time? (Be sure to note when it rose and fell) (Massey and Pren)

During the years from 1955- 1959, about half a million Mexicans were entering the U.S. each year, the number fluctuating around 450,000 temporary Bracero migrants and 50,000 permanent residents (3). Elimination of the Bracero program left a fluctuation of immigration spanning from the 1950s to the 1970s. They went from having 450,000 guest workers with visas and an almost unlimited number of resident visas to no guest workers at all and a cap of 20,000 resident visas(4). Since, the avenues for legal entry were reduced after 1965 migratory flows continued but now without documentation which caused an increase of illegal immigration.

How were U.S. immigration policies changed in the 1960s? In your answer, be sure to note what the Bracero program was.

During the 1960s amid the civil right's movement there was a dominant liberalizing force to introduce "greater openness to the immigration system" (3). Discriminatory quotas were seen as racist and repealed by Congress in 1965. Immigration was not a very big "issue" at the time there were very few immigrants settling in the U.S. Immigration reformers also wanted to end the Bracero program which allowed for foreign workers to come to the U.S. for a short term. Once the Bracero program ended there was an increase in illegal immigration to the U.S.

According to Massey and Pren (2012), how did changes in U.S. immigration policies unintentionally lead to increasing illegal immigration to the U.S.?

As I stated in the previous questions, U.S. immigration policies such as ending the Bracero program and capping the amount immigrants annually. The Bracero program was a way for immigrants to come to the U.S. legally for a temporary period in order to work in avenues like agriculture. The decision to not renew this program as well as limiting the amount of immigrants annually ultimately led to an increase in illegal immigration into the U.S. However, the number of legal immigrants exceeded the 20,000 person limit since "parents, spouses and minor children of US citizens were exempted from numerical limitation" (5).

Massey and Pren (2012) argue that there was a 'feedback loop' between border apprehensions and border enforcement that occurred between 1965 and 1995 in the U.S. Describe this feedback loop. In your answer, be sure to

explain

a. how border apprehensions led to stricter enforcement, and vice versa.

b. how this resulted in increasing border apprehensions, "despite the lack of any real increase in illegal migration" after the 1970s (Massey and Pren 2012, p. 9)

The authors explain how there was a feedback loop that was created during the period ranging from 1965-1995 which created stricter border enforcement. This began due to the narrative of the "latino threat", where media began framing immigration as a "crisis" "flood" or "invasion" (6). The use of this terminology and making immigrants out to be criminals and invaders was then used by politicians, specifically Ronald Reagan to push their racist conservative agendas. This led to a sustained increased anti immigration legislation "despite the lack of any real increase in illegal migration". This loop was sustained because if there were any undocumented entry attempts then stricter enforcement laws caused more apprehensions which politicians then used to their advantage to heighten public opinion which passed more stricter laws and legislation which then generated more apprehension again continuously perpetuating this cycle.

How do Massey and Pren (2012) explain the trend in legal immigration from Mexico in the late 20th century? Note how it was affected (unintentionally) by changes in U.S. immigration policies in the 1960s and 1980s.

There became a large increase in the trend of legal immigration to the U.S. despite the 1965 decision, which capped annual immigration to 20,000 this was due to the fact that the population of legal immigrants was rising since "parents, spouses and minor children of US citizens were exempted from numerical limitation" (5). However, in 1986 the Immigration Control and Reform Act was passed which made prerequisites to citizenship a requirement for legalization. This meant that "2.7 million former undocumented migrants were induced to satisfy the requirements previously asked only of people wishing to become US citizens". After having satisfied the language and civics requirement all that was left was to pay for an application fee and wait. In an attempt to slow immigration, amendments were passed that limited visas that were solely for "family reunification" (19) and an annual cap was set.

Who are the authors and their writings?

-McAdam's (1982) Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency

What are the "classical model," the "resource mobilization model", and the "political process" model of social movements? How does each of these models explain, in general, why social movements develop?

The classical model theorists think that structural strain is an important factor in shaping the development of a social movement. Social movements are reflective of the strains and issues that are present within society, "pictured as a direct product of recent changes in the larger environment" (65). The resource mobilization model basically states that in order to have a social movement you need to gather resources which include time, money, energy and effort, there are many ways to gain these resources . The political process model explains how political opportunities for change must first be present before a movement can achieve its objectives. There needs to be disorder in the political sector in order for a social movement to succeed.

How was the "structure of political opportunities" (McAdam 1982) unfavorable for Black political action in the U.S. from 1876-1930?

In 1876 northern Republicans agreed to relax federal reconstruction efforts in the South and in return they would gain southern support for their candidate. Basically, the southern democrats promises to protect the civil and political rights of Black people were not kept "the issue of the freed Negro was denationalized". For black people at the time political opportunity was limited in their favor. A quote from the text sums up this statement, "organization is the mobilization of bias. Some issues are organized into politics while others are organized out". At the time, the civil rights of black people and slaves were non-existent and not prioritized in political discussions.

What changes occurred between 1931 and 1954 that increased the opportunities for Black political action?"

One of the great changes that occurred between the 1931 and 1954 period that increased opportunities for Black political action was the decline of the cotton industry or "King Cotton". Along with the Great Depression, this created many "push" and "pull" factors that forced workers to look for jobs elsewhere. Many moved North in search of opportunity and some also stayed in the South. Black people that moved to the North increased their occupational status, they went from working on cotton mills to working as "clerical and managerial positions, skilled craftsmen and professionals" (96).

In what ways were the organizational resources of Black people in the U.S. very limited during the time period of 1876-1930?

During the period of 1876-1930 the black community did not hold much power when it came to politics; in fact, "discriminatory federal action increased significantly during the period" (71). This led to black powerlessness and the lack of black representation within the political sector also was a result of having no power. During this period there was a multitude of supreme court cases involving blacks which limited their political opportunity by further eroding earlier supreme court cases that protected their civil rights. There was "strict noninvolvement and aggressive opposition to black aims" (71). Apparently there were times when reconstruction was brought up but support slowly faded out as time went on.

What changes occurred between 1931 and 1954 that increased the organizational strength of the Black community?

Due to the collapse of the cotton industry and the socioeconomic pivot from an agricultural to industrial society, the oppressive system of social controls imposed on black laborers was becoming no longer essential. Violence among the black community began decreasing, lynching reports went down significantly every year. Since, the threat of white supremacy and violence was reduced this encouraged organization within the black community. Additionally, violence toward black people was less in urban areas so the urbanization in the North allowed for the black population to not be subjected to racism. They also increased occupational status and began making more money which led to more resources to support the growth of organizations. There were three main organizations that led a majority of the protest activity which included; black churches, black colleges and southern chapters of the NACCP. As resources for the black community increased, political opportunity also followed along.

What were Black people's collective perceptions of the prospects for challenging racial oppression between 1876-1930? What changes occurred between 1931 and 1954 that increased the black community's optimism and sense of political efficacy?

There was still a feeling of hopelessness and pessimism amongst the black community. They have faced years of discrimination and social control that it was not so easy for them to agree with and be in support of change in their community, they were so used to the racial hierarchy of life. One big event which led to a change in the community's optimism and sense of political efficacy was when president Roosevelt openly stated that lynching is murder. He was the first president to acknowledge this fact, W.E.B Dubois wrote about what he felt after the statement, "we all knew it, but it was unusual to have a President of the United States admit it. These things gives us hope" (109). After this day there was a profound shift in attitude, the surveys from the reading show a significant increase in optimism for their future.

How does McAdam show that the 'classical model' fails to explain the emergence of the Black movement? How does McAdam show that the 'resource mobilization model' fails to explain the emergence of the Black movement?

McAdams shows that the classical model fails to explain the emergence of the Black movement because he exposes how the societal strain during the time does not line up with the increase of movement activity. He explains how there is not a way to measure the cause-effect relationship between the types of economic trends to measure system strain and the level of movement activity. Resource mobilization also fails to explain the emergence of the Black movement because the model here discounts the importance of indigenous resources as a factor that facilitated insurgency. Rather, the model suggests that rising external support for insurgent groups is responsible for rising insurgency rather than the other way around.

What is McAdam's overall explanation for why the Black movement emerged in the 1950s? How does his argument, based on the 'political process model', differ from other explanations for the origins of this movement?

McAdams in his conclusion of this research paper gives us his explanation as to why the Black movement emerged in the 1950s. He disregards the classical and resource mobilization theories and rather expands on the political process model. The first reason as to why this movement emerged he states is due to the "structure of political opportunities confronting black gradually improved during this period", this allowed activists to further express their demand for change. Second, the expansion of political opportunities led to greater political success which allowed insurgents to redefine existing conditions as subject to change through collective action. Lastly, with the growth of the three major institutions; black colleges, churches and NAACP chapter it developed indigenous organizational strength which was needed for the movement to thrive.

Who are the authors and their writings

Roy's (1997) Socializing Capital

What were the "three eras" in the development of the corporation (Roy, 1997, p. 16)? Note how the corporation differed in each era.

The first era was the early 19th century, then the mid 19th century and lastly the late 19th century. During the early 19th century business corporations were only one type that were created by the government to perform public functions such as education, urban services, churches, charities and infrastructures. Since they were created to solely enhance the public domain thy were given certain privileges like monopoly rights and were financed by institutional structures (Wall street). In the mid 19th century they fully privatized the "mature corporate infrastructure" (17) but remained separate from manufacturing. Incorporation became a right that was accessible rather than a privilege. The railroad corporation ended up growing to unprecedented size. At the end of the 19th century there was a merger of corporate institutions with manufacturing. This prohibited industry governance and enforced relations of corporate property.

How does the corporation differ from individual ownership of property? What does Roy (1997) mean when he refers to corporations as "socialized property" (p. 10)?

Major corporations became known as what the author describes as "socialized property" which means that instead of a firm being owned by one or a few individuals, the firm became owned by many individuals and individual owners typically owned many pieces of many firms. Corporations have limited liability which means they are shielded from any risk greater than their invested capital. This means that the specific rights, entitlements and obligations are variable rather than fixed.

What is efficiency theory? How does it account for why American capitalism became organized around corporations?

Efficiency theory is the idea that more efficient economic forms will prevail over less sufficient forms (7). Individual and organizational actors compete for scarce resources, the more efficient is most likely to prevail. Therefore corporations arose because it was a more efficient organization than partnerships. Corporations over time slowly began to become the more efficient and dominant force in our U.S. economic system. The author makes the point that efficiency theory theorizes about "who" in terms of the production, distributors, suppliers, consumers etc. but little is said about adaptations to exogenous forces such as technology and markets

How does Roy (1997) critique efficiency theory? What is his alternative framework for explaining the origin of the large corporation?

Roy critiques efficiency theory in four different ways: first he claims that the theory assumes a singular decision making entity that assumes one actor assessing the advantages and disadvantages of choice before they make a decision. However, corporations were formed by many different decisions therefore the explanation is lacking in its explanation of social processes and power structures within them. Additionally, the theory explains why actors might have been motivated to form corporations but lacks an explanation as to how they were able to do so. Also, as actors are supposed to maximize their utilities an explanation of change is needed to understand why choices exist and what the outcomes of the choices have. Lastly, the theory follows a logic of evolutionary change which is problematic because it explains change in terms of consequences (9).

what were the key features of corporations in the first era? Where did they come from? In your answer, note the ways in which the "quasi-public" corporations of early U.S. history (p. 41) differ from the private corporations that exist today. (Hint: To answer this, you will need to understand the distinction between public and private.

Some of the major states the author focused on include Pennsylvania, Ohio and New Jersey. New Jersey is known as the "home of the trusts" where nearly all the large socially capitalized corporations were chartered. Ohio on the other hand was one of the more rigorous states that did not fully limit liability until this century. Pennsylvania fell in between these two; it was a heavy industrial state that was not as permissive as New Jersey but not as restrictive as Ohio. Changes in one state impacted another and they relied on each other to set a precedent for decisions in other cases.

What factors led to the "erosion of the public corporation" in the mid-19th-century U.S. (Roy 1997, p. 71) and to the creation of the private business corporation that exists today?

There are two factors that led to the change from public to private business corporations that exist today. The first is that the anti-business political movement was split into two factions, one favored greater public accountability and the other advocated a radical separation of public and private power and the reduction of state power. The other was the timing of the depression in 1837, the failing state enterprises were used by opponents of public accountability to limit state investment and supervision but also to permanently seal off the public sector from private corps by constitutional amendments.

What was the "corporate revolution" that occurred at the end of the nineteenth century? How does Roy (1997) explain why it happened?

The actions that led to the "corporate revolution" that occurred at the end of the nineteenth century must be explained in terms of the power that could be yielded in social relationships. They could either try to compete against giant corporations and monopolies who controlled all of the resources or they could become a part of the combination, which is a decision not necessarily rooted in efficiency. The decision of investors to broaden corporate financing from the railroads and government securities to industrial combinations was a turning point that sparked the "explosion of mergers we call the corporate revolution". Factors emphasized by efficiency theory, technology and organizational hierarchy can also be seen as resources that could be used in relationships of power.