Medieval European History: Key Figures, Treaties, and Dynasties

Who defeated the Romans in the Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE?

Arminius

Which Roman historian wrote Germania, an important source on early Germanic tribes?

Tacitus

The Salic Law (Lex Salica) is associated with which people?

Franks

What was decided in the Treaty of Verdun (843)?

The division of Charlemagne's empire among his grandsons. Verdun split the empire into 3 equal parts

Where did Emperor Henry IV kneel in the snow to beg forgiveness from Pope Gregory VII in 1077?

Canossa

Which emperor drowned during the Third Crusade?

Frederick 1 Barbarossa

The Golden Bull of 1356 established:

The 7 prince-electors of the Holy Roman Empire

Who painted Luther as a monk with a halo, helping to spread his image?

Cranach the Elder. Produced pro-reformation art

The principle of cuius regio, eius religio was introduced in:

The Peace of Augsburg (1555)

The Peace of Westphalia (1648) ended:

The Thirty Years War

Who was Arminius?

Germanic tribal leader who defeated the Romans at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 CE. Seen later as a national hero and symbol of German resistance to foreign domination

What is Germania?

A work by Roman historian Tacitus. It described the customs, values, and lifestyle of the Germanic tribes, portraying them as brave, simple, and morally upright compared to the decadent Rome.

What was the Migration of Nations? (Völkerwanderung)

The large-scale movement of Germanic tribes (Goths, Vandals, Lombards, etc) into Roman lands between the 4th-6th centuries. It contributed to the fall of the Western Roman Empire and shaped medieval Europe.

Who was Clovis?

King of the Franks. Founder of the Merovingian dynasty. Converted to Christianity around 500 CE, which helped integrate the Franks into Roman-Christian culture and linked Germanic rule with the Church.

Who were the Merovingians?

Dynasty founded by Clovis-king of the Franks. They ruled the Franks until the 8th century, paved the way for the Carolingians

Who were the Carolingians?

Frankish dynasty starting with Charles Martel and solidified by Charlemagne. They replaced the Merovingians and created the Carolingian Empire, a major step in medieval state-building.

What year was the Treaty of Verdun signed?

843

What did the Treaty of Verdun divide?

Charlemagne's empire

Who were the recipients of the divided empire in the Treaty of Verdun?

Charlemagne's 3 grandsons

What were the three regions established by the Treaty of Verdun?

West Francia, East Francia, and Middle Francia

What future country did East Francia become?

Germany

What did the Treaty of Verdun mark the beginnings of?

Distinct European kingdoms

Who were the Ottonians?

German dynasty beginning with Otto 1. Otto 1 defeated the Magyars at Lechfeld and was crowned emperor in 962, establishing the Holy Roman Empire

What dynasty ruled Germany in the 11th-12th centuries?

Salians

Who was a key figure of the Salian dynasty that clashed with Pope Gregory VII?

Henry IV

What major conflict was associated with Henry IV and Pope Gregory VII?

Investiture Controversy

What dynasty period was Hohenstaufen from?

Dynasty of the 12th-13th centuries, including Frederick I Barbarossa.

What did the Hohenstaufen dynasty try to do?

Assert imperial power in Italy but struggled with the papacy and German nobles.

Who was Barbarossa (Frederick I)?

Hohenstaufen emperor.

What was Barbarossa’s (Frederick I) goal?

To restore imperial authority in Germany and Italy, but he clashed with the papacy and drowned on the Third Crusade.

Who was Henry IV?

The Salien emperor. He was excommunicated by Pope Gregory VII during the investiture controversy. Famously did penance at Canossa in 1077 to have his excommunication lifted. 

Canossa (1077)

An event where Henry IV stood in the snow for 3 days at the castle of Canossa to beg forgiveness from Pope Gregory VII. Symbolized papal power over secular rulers during the Investiture Controversy. 

Describe the Golden Bull (1356)

Decree issued by Emperor Charles IV. Established 7 prince-electors (3 archbishops and 4 secular rulers) who would choose the Holy Roman Emperor. Institutionalized Germany’s fragmented political structure. 

Electors

The original 7 princes who had the exclusive right to elect the Holy Roman Emperor after the Golden Bull. (Ex: King of Bohemia, Duke of Saxony, Archbishop of Mainz)

Who/what were the Hansa? (Hanseatic League)

A commercial alliance of North German cities that dominated trade in the Baltic and North Seas. Symbol of German economic power.

Prussia

A duchy/kingdom in northern Germany ruled by the Hohenzollerns. Its Junker nobility and military tradition became central to later German unification, though in the medieval period it was more regional.

Who were the Junkers?

Prussian landed nobility. They held large estates and controlled rural society. Their military and political influence shaped German politics well into the modern era.

Romanesque

Medieval architectural style (10th-12th centuries) characterized by rounded arches, thick walls, and fortress-like churches. Ex: Speyer Cathedral

Gothic

Later medieval architecture (12th-16th centuries) with pointed arches, tall spires, ribbed vaults, and stained glass. Ex: Cologne Cathedral

Who were the Medieval authors?

Writers of Middle High German literature, including courtly epics like The Nibelungenlied and works in the Manesse Codex. Reflected chivalric and aristocratic culture.

What was the Nibelungenlied?

An epic poem telling the story of Siegfried, Kriemhild, and Hagen.

What was the Manesse Codex?

An illuminated manuscript from Zurich (early 14th century) containing songs of medieval German poets. Important source for medieval German culture.

Sachsenspiegel

A legal code written in the early 13th century in Saxony. Reflected customary German law and became an influential legal tradition.

Salic Law

The legal code of the Franks, compiled under Clovis. Important for its rules on inheritance and property, later used in dynastic disputes.

Who was Jan Hus?

A Czech reformer influenced by Wycliffe. Criticized church corruption and emphasized scripture over papal authority. Burned at the stake in 1415, influencing later reformers like Luther.

Who was Martin Luther?

German monk and theologian. Posted the 95 Theses in 1517, sparking the reformation. Advocated justification by faith alone and the authority of Scripture.

Cranach the Elder

Painter and close friend of Luther. Produced portraits and propaganda supporting the Reformation, making Luther’s image widely known.

Who was Gutenberg?

Johannes Gutenberg invented the moveable-type printing press. Enabled the rapid spread of Luther’s writings and revolutionary ideas. 

Who was Melanchthon?

Luther’s ally and collaborator, called “Teacher of Germany”. Helped systematize Protestant theology and organize schools.

Who was Zwingli?

A Swiss reformer. Agreed with Luther on scripture’s authority but denied Christ’s physical presence in the Eucharist. Killed in battle.

Who was Calvin?

French reformer based in Geneva. Stressed predestination, discipline, and moral order. His theology influenced Reformed churches and later Protestant movements.

Peasant Revolt

Rebellion of German peasants inspired partly by Reformation ideals and demands for social/economic justice. Crushed violently.

What was Luther’s opinion on the German Peasant rebels?

He condemned them

Who was Thomas Müntzer?

Radical reformer who supported the Peasant Revolt and preached apocalyptic, revolutionary ideas. Executed in 1525 after defeat at Frankenhausen.

Who are the Anabaptists?

Radical Protestant sect rejecting infant baptism and advocating separation from worldly power.

Who were the Anabaptists persecuted by?

Catholics and other Protestants.

Who was Jan van Leyden?

Leader of the radical Anabaptists in Münster (1530s). Established a theocratic “New Jerusalem” practicing polygamy. Eventually executed.

What did Jan van Leyden’s execution symbolize?

A warning of radicalism. (Anabaptists)

What was the Peace of Augsburg (1555)?

Settlement ending the first round of religious wars in the Holy Roman Empire. Recognized Lutherism alongside Catholicism, introducing cuius regio, eius religio (“whose realm, his religion”). Did not recognize Calvinists.

What was the Thirty Years War?

Conflict beginning in Bohemia and spreading across Europe. Involved religious disputes, dynastic rivalries, and foreign intervention. Devastated German lands.

Who was Gustavus Adolphus?

The King of Sweden, Lutheran leader who intervened in the Thirty Years War. Won major victories but was killed at the Battle of Lützen. 

Who was Wallenstein?

Bohemian noble and Catholic general. Commanded Imperial forces in the Thirty Years War. Brilliant but controversial; assassinated in 1634.

What was Magdeburg?

German city besieged and destroyed in 1631 during the Thirty Years War. The “Sack of ______” became infamous for brutality and symbolized the war’s devastation.

What was the Defenestration of Prague (1618)

Protestant nobles threw Catholic officials out a window in Prague. Sparked the Thirty Years war.

What sparked the Thirty Years War?

The Defenestration of Prague, because it challenged Habsburg authority. 

What was the Peace of Westphalia? (1648)

Treaties ending the Thirty Years War. Recognized Calvinism, confirmed the independence of the Dutch and Swiss, and marked the rise of state sovereignty. Seen as the foundation of the modern international system.

Who was the great “liberator” of the Cherusci, who fought against the Romans and won, at the Battle of the Teutoburger Forest?

Arminius

Which tribe attacked Rome from North Africa, lending their name to a word meaning “hooligan”?

Vandals

Why does Tacitus believe the Germanic tribes must be native to that area?

No one would willingly move to such a bad climate.

Which animal is most important to the Germanic tribes as a means of divination?

A white horse.

How do Germanic councils show that they agree with a decision?

They brandish their spears.

What does a young Germanic man receive to indicate he is an adult?

Weapons.

Which dynasty ruled the Franks before the Carolingians overthrew them in 751?

The Merovingians.

The invasion of which people was stopped at Poitiers/Tours (in modern day France) by Charles Martel in 732?

The Muslims.

Which town did Charlemagne make his main capital?

Aachen.

How did Charlemagne show his “great love” for his daughters?

He didn’t allow them to marry, but kept them at court.

What was Charlemagne’s view of foreigners?

He liked them and invited them to court.

Charlemagne was crowned Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE. On which day?

Christmas Day.

Which dynasty succeeded the Ottonians (also known as the Saxons) in 1024?

Salians.

What was the nickname of the great Hohenstaufen (Staufer) emperor Friedrich I, who reigned from 1153-1190?

Barbarossa.

Who was Friedrich’s vassal duke who led an uprising against him?

Henry the Lion of Saxony and Bavaria.

Where did Friedrich I’s grandson, Friedrich II, call home?

Sicily

Why did Jews take on the role of money-lenders in the Middle Ages?

Because Christians had a religious prohibition against charging interest on loans.

What is the special power allotted to Brunhild in the story of the Nibelungenlied?

Strength.

What was the name of the Norther trading league, of which Lübeck was was the most important town?

Hanseatic League (Hansa).

Who founded the territory known as Prussia?

The Order of the Teutonic knights.

What was the name given to the landed aristocracy in Prussia?

Junkers.

Why is the language called Yiddish so akin to Middle High German?

Because Jews were made scapegoats for the Black Death in the 14th century and fled East, taking their German language with them.

Which family was elected almost exclusively to the rank of Holy Roman Emperor from 1273 until the Empire’s dissolution?

Habsburg.

What is the date of the Golden Bull?

1356

What was known as the “Great Schism of the West” between 1378 and 1415?

The existence of two popes, one in Rome and one in Avignon.

All but one of the following countries were ruled by men who competed to be Holy Roman Emperor. Which is it?

Sweden

In what year is Martin Luther said to have nailed his 95 theses to the door of the Castle Church in Wittensberg?

1517

What was the Diet of Worms?

The imperial court gathering at which Luther had to defend his doctrines.

What was Luther’s great achievement during his “imprisonment” in the Wartburg?

He translated the new Testament into German

What was the most important catalyst for Luther’s penning of the 95 theses?

The sale of indulgences by the Church.

Where did Luther have to face the Emperor?

Worms.

To which ruler did Luther address his “Address to the Christian Nobility of the German Nation”?

Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor.

Why does Luther say that, if priests were to marry, the Pope couldn’t do anything about it?

Because God's order from the wedding ceremony ("let no man put asunder") also includes the Pope.

What was one of the most important tenets of Luther’s theology?

We are saved by faith alone.