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Functions of Blood

Transportation, regulation, and protection.

RBCs

biconcave dis-shaped structures without a nucleus

lifespan of about 120 days to 4 months

they carry oxygen around the body

Number 4.8 to 5.4 million

WBCs

White blood cells are larger than RBCs,

have a nucleus,

reproduce on their own

fight infections and microbes in the body

Number: about 5,000 to 10,000

Life span: for hours to days ~ decades

Platelets

Platelets are cell fragments without a nucleus lifespan of 5 to 9 days

involved in blood clotting and coagulation.

Number: about 150,000 to 400,000

Leukemia

WBC cancer, abnormal WBCs multiply uncontrollably

leukocytosis

increase in the # of WBCs >10,000

Leukopenia

decrease in the # of WBCs <5,000

Agranulocytes

Agranulocytes lack granules inside and include lymphocytes and monocytes

Monocytes and neutrophils

Neutrophils get there faster but are not as long-lasting as monocytes.

Monocytes are associated with chronic infections

Granulocytes

basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils

Plasma Proteins

Albumin (maintains osmotic pressure)

Globulins (backbone of antibodies)

Fibrinogen (involved in blood clotting)

Plasma

Plasma is the straw-colored liquid part of blood, making up 55% of blood and consisting of 91.5% water.

Hemostasis

Hemostasis is the process to stop bleeding in small cuts

Vascular spasm/vasospasm:

decrease blood vesse. contraction of blood vessels, called vasocontraction. We reduce the diameter of the blood vessel which reduces blood flow.

Platelet plug formation:

platelets strike damaged epithelial lining and collagen fiber, they begin to stick together and get larger and seal up the hole and pull it together.150,000 -400,000, 5-9 days, blood clotting

Coagulation

has three stages of cascading chemicals

a) Formation of prothrombinase. 

b) protrombin→prothrombinase→thrombin. 

c) fibrinogen→thrombin—>fibrin threads. 

Blood Typing

Type A has A proteins on cell

Type B has B proteins on cell 

Type AB has both AB proteins on cell 

O does not have any proteins on cell

isoantibodies

• Type A has anti-B in plasma

• Type B has anti-A in plasma

• Type AB does not have any in plasma

• Type O has both anti-A and anti-B in plasma

compatibility

• Type A: can receive Type A and O blood

• Type B: can receive Type B and O blood

• Type AB: can receive Type AB, A, B, O blood (universal receiver) 

• Type O: can receive Type O blood (universal donor)

hemolytic disease of fetus

if RH-positive man and RH-negative woman have baby that is RH-positive so mother makes anti-RH antibodies which could affect next RH-positive baby. Mother is given Rogam injections that blocks anti-RH. 

Heart Coverings

The pericardium encloses and protects the heart with fibrous and serous layers.

Heart Wall Layers

The heart wall consists of the

epicardium: vessels larger of serous pericardium. 

myocardium: cardiac muscle layer of heart, most substantial layer

endocardium: deep thin layer that lines the insides of chambers

Chambers - Atria

• Atria: 2 smaller upper chambers (between right and left)

  • smooth inside

  • separated by interatrial septum

  • Pumps blood to ventricles (left to left, right to right)

Chambers - Ventricle

• Ventricles: 2 larger lower chambers (right and left)

  • Separated by interventricular septum

  • Right ventricle: pumps blood to lungs

  • Left ventricle: pumps blood to rest of body through aorta

Valves

• prevent backflow of blood so only moves in one direction

  • 2 AV (atrioventricular) valves: between atria and ventricles

• Right atrium to right ventricle: tricuspid valve

• Left atrium to left ventricle: bicuspid or mitral valve

• Pulmonary valve: right ventricle to pulmonary trunk 

• Aorta valve: left ventricle to aorta

Chordae tendinae

• little strings, tendinous cords made of CT that attach from valve flaps of AV valves and anchor to the papillary muscles in ventricle 

  • tricuspid and bicuspid valves ONLY

  • Prevent prolapse of AV valves that are under a lot of pressure

fossa ovalis

• small depression in wall of right atrium in interatrial septum 

  • Remnant of foramen ovale, hole in heart during fetal development that closes up

circulation through heart

right atrium → tricuspid valve → right ventricle → pulmonary valve → pulmonary trunk → lungs → left atrium → bicuspid/mitral valve → left ventricle → aortic valve → aorta → around body → right atrium

Conduction System of the Heart

Includes the SA node, AV node, AV bundle, right and left bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers.

Heart Sounds

Lubb = closure of AV valves (tricuspid and bicuspid valves) 1st sound closure.

Dupp = closure of semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic valves) 2nd sound closure

abnormal heart sounds

heart murmer

EKG Waves

P-wave indicates atrial contraction/atrial depolarization/atrial systole,

QRS complex represents ventricular contraction/ventricular depolarization/ventricular systole

T-wave signifies ventricular relaxation/ventricular repolarization/ventricular diastole

Sympathetic vs parasympathetic

Sympathetic increases heart rate and force of contractions, uses neurotransmitter norepinephrine

Parasympathetic decreases heart rate and force of contractions, uses neurotransmitter acetylcholine

Agina Pectoris

chest pain associated with heart disease due to insufficiency of RBCs

Thrombocytopenia

Very low platelet count that results in a tendency to bleed from capillaries.

Polycythemia

the number of RBCs is abnormally high

Pernicious Anemia

insufficient hemopoiesis from inability of stomach to produce intrinsic factor, needed for absorption of vitamin B in the small intestine 

Bicuspid valve prolapse

backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium,can cause mitral insufficiency. In MVP one or both cusps of the mitral valve protrude into the left atrium during ventricular contraction, when left av pushes back during ventricular systole 

Vaso vasorum

blood vessels that supply blood vessels

tunica interna

• deep layer of the blood vessels, 

  • made of endothelium

  • Internal elastic tissue

Tunica media

• middle layer of blood vessels, 

  • made up of smooth muscle

  • External elastic tissue

Tunica externa

fibrous collagen tissue that supports it

elastic arteries

• large conducting elastic arteries 

  • Example: aorta 

muscular arteries

• distributing medium-sized arteries

  • Have more muscle tissue

  • Involved with vaso constrction and vaso dilation

  • Example: radial arteries, ulnar arterieries brachial arteries, femoral arteries,
    Tibial arteries, etc (limb arteries)

arterioles

Carries blood from the medium-sized arteries to the capillary beds

capillaries

• smallest microscopic blood vessels, major area of diffusion

  • fouund everywhere in the body except in epithelial tissue, cartilage, epidermis, and cornea of the eyes

veins

• drain the blood from the capillary beds coming back to the heart

  • Have a thinner wall than an artery

  • NO elastic tissue

  • NO under pressure

  • YES valves, when arteries don’t have the valves 

Vasoconstriction vs vasodilation

Vasoconstriction narrows blood vessels, while vasodilation widens them.

Physiologically Important Vessel

Capillaries

• They don’t have the most blood in them but they are important bc all of our diffusion and active transport mechanisms take place

• Where we give off nutrients and pick up waste products

Pulse and Blood Pressure

Radial artery is used to check the pulse, and brachial artery is used to check blood pressure.

blood pressure instrument

Sphygmomanometer

umbilical vein

placenta → fetus

umbilical arteries

fetus → placenta

ductus venosus

fetus circulation

bypasses the liver

ductus arteriosus

fetus circulation

pulmonary trunk → aorta

foramen ovale

fetus circulation

right atrium → left atrium

Respiratory System

1. Nose/nasal cavity area

2. Nasopharynx

3. Oropharynx (directly posterior to the oral cavity)

4. Laryngopharynx (most inferior part of the pharynx)

5. Larynx (voice box)

6. Trachea

7. Bronchi

8. Bronchioles

9. Terminal bronchioles

10. Respiratory bronchioles

11. Alveolar ducts

12. Alveolar sacs

functions of nose (3)

1. Warms, moistens and filters the air

2. Olfaction = sense of smell

3. Vocal resonance (sound of voice comes from the shape of the nose/nasal cavity, sinuses)

parts of nasal septum (3)

• Perpendicular plate of ethmoid

• Vomer

• Septal cartilage

Epiglottis

moveable cartilage flap that seels off the larynx when we are swallowing so we don't aspirate liquids or solids into our respiratory system

thyroid cartilage

Adam’s apple which is largest cartilage structure. It is a landmark structure that lets us know where the larynx is

Cricoid cartilage:

first true cartilage ring that we feel below thyroid cartilage and it indicates junction of larynx and trachea. 

Auditory tube

Also known as Eustachian tube, connects the nasopharynx to the middle ear for pressure equalization.

center for regulating normal respiration

Medullary rhythmicity center - found in medulla oblongata in brainstem - lowest most primitive part of the brain

center for conscious breathing

pons - allows us to take prolonged inhalation or exhalation or hold our breath.

chemical control center of respiration

Carbon dioxide is the main chemical control because as CO2 levels go up, our blood pH will go down. Blood has to have pH of 7.35-7.5 so if you hold your breath, you affect pH of blood which signals brain to breathe faster and get CO2 out and O2 in and shift pH levels.

hypoxia

medical term for a decrease delivery or availability of oxygen to tissues

Anemic hypoxia

Type of hypoxia due to decreased functional red blood cells affecting oxygen transport.

stagnant hypoxia

• oxygen and RBC is available but there is something going on with the cardiovascular system so can’t pump blood to lungs or out the aorta to the rest of body

  • Ex: heart attack, major blood loss,

histotoxic hypoxia

• inability of cells to use oxygen 

  • Ex: cyanide poisoning which blocks the cells from using oxygen

hypoxic hypoxia

• decreased availability of oxygen due to decreased availability of oxygen

  • High altitude which has less oxygen

Lymph vessels

like veins, thinly muscled walls, have valves, do NOT transport lymph anywhere, pick lymph from capillary beds and carry it back to bloodstream, returning leaked intercellular fluid and plasma proteins out cleansing it and returning it to blood

lymph

fluid interstitial intercellular fluid found in lymph vessels

lymph structures and organs

spleen (largest lymphatic tissue), thymus gland, lymph nodes, tonsils, diffuse loose lymphatic tissue in digestive system, bone marrow

function of lymph

• Cleanses and returns leaked plasma proteins from capillary beds back to blood, 

• Cleanses and returns interstitial plasma fluid back to bloodstream 

• transportation of dietary fats, 

• Protection and immunity in both specific and non-specific immune resistance - involved in manufacture of WBCs 

methods of non-specific disease resistance

• Mechanical

• chemical

• Antimicrobial agents

• Phagocytosis: eating cells

• Natural Killer (NK) Cells

• Inflammation

• Fever

Mechanical disease resistance

skin, intact mucous membranes, epiglottis, urination, defecation

chemical disease resistance

sebum on skin, acids in vagina, lacrimal apparatus (tears), gastric juice, lysozyme (bacterial enzyme in tears)

IgG

Antibody class involved in protecting against bacteria and viruses by enhancing phagocytosis.

IgA

found in secretions of body -  tears, saliva, mucous, breastmilk, blood

IgM

involved in causing microbes in agglutination and cytolysis (punching hole in cell membrane)

IgD

activates more B-cells to be converted into plasma cells to make more antibodies

IgE

found on outside of mass cells or basophils and involved in allergic reactions

T cells

•  directly attack the foreign invaders, develop from the thymus gland

  • Helper T Cells

  • Cytotoxic T Cells

  • Memory T cells

B-cells

produce antibodies to attack the foreign proteins, develop from the gut and spleen, and differentiate into plasma cells

Memory cells

BOTH T and B cells produce MEMORY CELLS are programmed to recognize the original antigen, with a SECOND EXPOSURE there is a faster reaction time, conferring immunity

Helper cells

When a person is infected with HIV(human immunodeficiency virus), it will affect and infect helper cells, preventing both T cells and B cells from functioning properly

structure of antibody

• Y-shaped protein substances that have a pair of heavy chains and a pair of light chains

• Constant portion

  • determines the antibody class (IgA, IgG, IgM, IgD, etc)

• Variable portion

  • antigen-binding site(ABS) is found on the tip of the variable portion, which changes to match each specific antigen (foreign protein) the antibody is exposed to

dyspnea

Difficulty or labored breathing, shortness of breath

bradycardia

Abnormally slow heart rate, typically below 60 beats per minute 

tachycardia

Abnormally fast heart rate, generally above 100 beats per minute