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Period 2 Notes
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Europe
The Renaissance (1450-1650)
Key Concepts
Secularism
Focus on worldly (non-religious) subjects, not just religion.
Art, politics, and philosophy became more independent of the Church.
Humanism
Study of classical texts (Greek and Roman).
Emphasis on human achievements, potential, and dignity.
Celebration of the individual and secular knowledge.
Individualism
Focus on the importance of the individual over the group.
Artists, writers, and thinkers sought personal fame and recognition.
Personal style and self-expression valued.
Classicism
Admiration for ancient Greek and Roman culture.
Revival of classical ideas in art, architecture, and literature.
Rationalism
Belief in the power of reason and critical thinking.
Challenged medieval reliance on faith alone for knowledge.
Realism (in art)
Depicting subjects accurately and naturally.
Use of perspective, light, and shadow to create depth.
Scientific Inquiry
Growing interest in observing and understanding the natural world.
Foundations of the later Scientific Revolution.
Causes
Revival of Classical Knowledge
Rediscovery of Greek and Roman texts via crusades (preserved by Islamic scholars).
Fall of Constantinople (1453)
Byzantine scholars fled to Italy, bringing classical manuscripts and ideas.
Increased Trade
Wealth from trade (especially in Italian city-states like Venice and Florence) funded art and learning.
Exposure to different cultures and ideas.
Growth of Cities
Urban centers allowed for exchange of ideas.
Rise of a wealthy merchant class who valued education and culture.
The wealth and power of Northern Italian city-states, based in Mediterranean trade and banks, in the early 1600s, meant that there was an elite bourgeois with money to pay artists, schools, and universities
Decline of Feudalism
Shift from rural to urban economies; more people had time for education and arts.
The Black Death
Population drop led to economic shifts and a new outlook on life (focus on life’s beauty and achievements).
Printing Press (invented c. 1440)
Spread ideas quickly and widely.
Made books cheaper and more accessible.
The Reformation (1517)
Indulgences
A monetary payment which absolved/pardoned one of past sins and/or released one from purgatory after death.
“ Pay to the church to be saved”
Church Corruption
Papal power over time lent itself to corruption:
Ex: Pope appointed nephew as cardinal(nepotism) without any religious training whatsoever
Feudal lord
Pope-controlled land(Papal States)
Had his own papal army and could lead to battle in any occasion
Protestant Reformation
Martin Luther (Lutheranism)
German monk
Pre:
Struggled to believe that he would be saved for doing acts of penance (confessing sins to a priest and being given absolution).
1517:
He wrote 95 theses explaining his protest against the Catholic Church and how indulgences, mandatory fines, and penalties for people who committed sins were not based on the Bible and, therefore, not required of Christians. He encouraged Christians to read and interpret the Bible on their own, Increasing literacy rates.
Post:
Printing Press: His ideas are copied by others, are printed in Geman, and rapidly spread across Europe. Popularity his ideas gained made it difficult for the church to prosecute him.
Condemned him: But the church in 1521 but by then his ideas had condensed into a new faith, Lutheranism, which abolished the concept of indulgences, penance, and many sacraments.
Principles
Sola fide: Faith alone
Only your faith matters to go to heaven
Not indulgences, etc.
Your relationship to Christ
Sola gratia: By grace alone
Sola scriptura: By scripture alone
Follow the Bible, only the Bible
Other Protestant Religions
Anglican Church - Henry VIII and the English Reformation (1500s)
King Henry VIII wanted a divorce from his wife, but the Catholic Church would not grant him one
Henry decided to leave the Roman Church and name himself, the Supreme Head of the Anglican Church
King becomes head of the Church
1560: England permanently left the Roman Catholic Church
John Calvin and Calvinism (1530s)
French lawyer who moved to Geneva, Switzerland and created the Calvinist faith
He organized a Protestant community and worked with officers to impose a strict code of morality an discipline on the city.
Main belief: Predestination - God has already chosen those He will save from damnation, even if they have yet to be born
Calvinists had to: dress simply, study the Bible regularly, and refrain from activities such as dancing and playing cards
Conversion: France, Germany, the Low Countries, England, Scotland, and even distant Hungary
Supporting Countries
Countries of the Reformation and Its Effects
Germany (Holy Roman Empire)
Birthplace of the Reformation (Martin Luther, 1517).
Divided into Protestant and Catholic states (led to religious wars like the Thirty Years’ War).
Weakened Holy Roman Emperor’s power.
England
Broke with the Catholic Church under Henry VIII (1530s).
Established the Church of England (Anglican Church).
Strengthened the monarchy’s control over religion and politics.
Switzerland
Strong Protestant movement led by Ulrich Zwingli and later John Calvin (Calvinism).
Geneva became thriving center for this religion
Promoted ideas like predestination and strict moral codes.
Scandinavia (Denmark, Norway, Sweden)
Adopted Lutheranism as the state religion.
Strengthened royal authority and national identity.
The Netherlands
Adopted Calvinism, especially in the northern provinces.
Rebellion against Catholic Spain (Eighty Years’ War) led to Dutch independence.
General Effects on Supporting Countries
Religious Diversity and conflict became common.
Increase in education
Protestants emphasized reading the Bible
Decline of Catholic Church power
Rise of nation-states
Stronger centralized governments not controlled by the Pope
Catholic Reformation
Essence
Purpose
A movement within the Catholic Church to reform itself in response to the Protestant Reformation and reaffirm Catholic doctrines.
Council of Trent (1545–1563)
A series of meetings where the Catholic Church clarified doctrine and addressed corruption.
Reaffirmed traditional Catholic teachings and rejected Protestant ideas.
Spain strongly supported these reforms.
Pope Paul III
Initiated the Council of Trent and supported the Counter-Reformation movement.
Index of Prohibited Books
A list of writings banned by the Catholic Church for containing heretical ideas.
Aimed to control knowledge and protect Catholic doctrine.
Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
A Catholic religious order founded to promote education, conduct missionary work, and defend Catholicism against Protestantism.
Played a major role in Catholic renewal and global missionary efforts.
Education and Monastic Reform
Reformed seminaries to better train clergy
Renewed discipline within monasteries to eliminate corruption
Supporting Countries
1. Italy (especially Papal States)
Center of the Catholic Church—home of the Pope and the Vatican
Hosted the Council of Trent (held in Trento, northern Italy).
Major reforms in clergy discipline and spiritual renewal originated here.
Strong censorship and Inquisition activity to combat heresy
Birthplace of several Catholic reform figures like Charles Borromeo and St. Philip Neri
2. Spain
Deeply Catholic, major force in the Counter-Reformation
Home of Ignatius of Loyola, founder of the Jesuits.
Spanish Inquisition (1478–1834)
Led by the Church and monarchy to eliminate heresy (Protestants, Jews, Muslims, etc.)
Used harsh punishments, censorship, and torture to maintain religious conformity.
Created a climate of fear and rigid orthodoxy.
Missionary Work in the Colonies
Spain spread Catholicism to the Americas through missionary efforts
Religious orders like the Franciscans, Jesuits, and Dominicans established missions and converted Indigenous peoples.
3. Portugal
Aligned closely with Spain in religious matters.
Remained staunchly Catholic and supported the Inquisition.
Sent missionaries to colonies in Asia, Africa, and South America.
Supported Catholic renewal through monastic and educational reform.
4. France
Catholic majority, but experienced a strong Protestant (Huguenot) movement
After a period of religious civil wars (Wars of Religion), the monarchy reaffirmed Catholicism.
Edict of Nantes (1598)
granted limited toleration to Protestants
was later revoked by Louis XIV—> huge persecution of Huguenots
The monarchy and Catholic Church worked together to suppress Protestantism and promote Catholic reform.
5. Poland-Lithuania
While it had religious diversity and some Protestant communities, the ruling class and monarchy stayed largely Catholic.
Strong Jesuit presence helped promote Catholic education and suppress Protestant growth.
Actively involved in the Catholic Reformation through seminaries and missions.
6. Habsburg Territories (especially Austria and parts of Germany)
The Habsburg dynasty were defenders of Catholicism.
Fought Protestant influence, especially in the Holy Roman Empire.
Used both military and religious tools (like Jesuits and Catholic orders) to restore Catholic dominance.
7. Ireland
Despite English efforts to impose Protestantism, the Irish population remained strongly Catholic.
Catholic identity became tied to resistance against English rule
Though under Protestant English control, Ireland remained a stronghold of Catholic faith.
Witch Hunts
Connection with the Reformation
As Europe became divided between Catholics and Protestants, tensions and paranoia led to accusations of witchcraft. It was also a means of enforcing religious conformity.
Gender and Persecution
Women, particularly those poor or isolated, were often scapegoated as witches. Misogyny and societal anxieties contributed to their targeting.
Thirty Years War (1618-1648)
Causes and Consequences
A conflict primarily between Protestant and Catholic states in the Holy Roman Empire. It began as a religious war but evolved into a political struggle. Consequences included massive population loss, economic devastation, and political shifts in Europe
Peace of Augsburg(1555):
Outcome of diet of Augsburg
Whatever the religion of the local ruling prince in the Holy Roman Empire, his people would have to worship that faith.
The Habsburgs who controlled the imperial throne, were Catholics and were wanted to reestablish Catholic dominance over the empire
The War:
Most of the battles were fought in Western and Central Germany
Up to 60% of the inhabitants of some areas of Germany died from war, famine, ordiseases(ex:bubonic plague), or moved away(displaced)
The population of the Holy Roman Enpire fell by as much as 7 million. and it did not regain its pre 1620 levels until 1750
Treaty of Westphalia(1648)
By the 40’s both sides were exhausted and were almost bankrupt- original religious causes had in a way been forgotten.
Fot the first time, a continent-wide peace conference was held to negotiate the end of the war
Results:
War ends, establishes state sovereignty and the principle of non-interference.
Establishes religious tolerance between the protestants(Lutherans & Calvinists) and Catholics
Power shifts away from the Habsburghs to other states
Winners:
The Low Countries(Dutch)
Ends the The Dutch gain their independence from Spain
Treaty of Westphalia ends Eight years war
War of Netherlands independence from Spain
Led to
Fought in habsurg Netherlands the separation of the northern and southern Netherlands and to the formation of the United Provinces of the Netherlands (the Dutch Republic)
Dutch colonization expanded significantly after the Eighty Years' War
Swedes
Gain territory and more control over their land
French
Take territory from the Spanish
Losers:
Spain
Went bankrupt
Pope
Lost Credibility
Holy Roman Empire
It was devastated and never regained what it was
Innovations
Military: Standing armies, improved tactics,canons, muskets, improved weapons, etc.
The Decline of the Holy Roman Empire
Political Structure
Decentralized empire; loose confederation of independent states.
Emperor had limited authority—couldn't enforce laws or unify territories.
Religious Division
Protestant Reformation (1517) split Empire into Catholic vs. Protestant states.
Led to internal conflict and weakened unity.
Protestant states gained autonomy; Church influence declined.
Thirty Years' War (1618–1648)
Ended by Peace of Westphalia, which fragmented the Empire further.
Power shifted to individual states.
Rise of Powerful States
France, Prussia, and Sweden grew stronger, surpassing the Empire.
Weakening of Imperial Authority
The emperor’s role became symbolic; local rulers held real power.
Internal divisions and lack of cohesion deepened.
New Monarchies in Europe
Absolutist Monarchies
Definition
A system of governance where the monarch holds absolute power, justified by divine right (e.g., "God’s lieutenants upon earth")
States
France
Centralized authority under monarchs like Louis XIV, who curbed feudal power and established absolutism
Louis XIV
Richelieu
Chief minister under Louis XIII of France
Curbs the Power of Nobles
Strengthened royal authority by weakening noble influence
New Bureaucracy
Created an efficient administration loyal to the king
War on French Protestants
Revoked Edict of Nantes, limiting religious freedom
Suppressed Huguenots to consolidate Catholic dominance
Versailles Placae:
Purpose
A symbol of absolute power and control over the nobility
L'état c'est moi/le roi de soleil
"I am the state" and "the Sun King" reflect his role as the central authority.
Military Glory as a Policy of State Expansion
Engaged in wars to extend French territory and influence.
Spain
Essence
Centralization of Power
Strengthened Spanish Inquisition
Key Rulers
Ferdinand and Isabella (late 1400s – early 1500s)
Unified Spain through their marriage (Castile & Aragon).
Centralized power by weakening the nobility and asserting control over the Church.
Completed the Reconquista (1492), expelling Muslims from Granada.
Expelled Jews in 1492 and pressured others to convert (led to Spanish Inquisition).
Sponsored Columbus’s voyage — launched Spain's overseas empire.
strong religious and political unity.
Philip II (1556–1598)
Extremely powerful
Ruled during Spain's Golden Age.
Centralized power in Madrid
Oversaw vast empire (Americas, Netherlands, parts of Italy)
Strongly Catholic, fought against Protestantism
(Spanish Armada vs. England in 1588 — failed).
Used wealth from American colonies to fund military campaigns
built Escorial Palace as symbol of power.
Tight control over government, no tolerance for dissent
Policies
Alcabala
A sales tax imposed on goods, usually around 10%.
Used to raise revenue for the Crown, especially during wars and imperial expansion.
Widely hated due to its impact on commerce, often leading to tax evasion and corruption.
Common in late medieval and early modern Spain, especially in the 1500s and 1600s.
Corregidores
Royal officials appointed by the Crown to rule towns and cities
Enforced royal laws, oversee local councils, and served as judges, police, and military leaders.
Strengthen royal control and reduce independent nobles' power.
Spanish Inquisition
To enforce Catholic orthodoxy
Russia
Ivan IV ("Ivan the Terrible") (1547–1584)
Centralized power
reduced power of boyars (nobles)
Created Oprichnina
secret police, personal army, terrorized opponents
Claimed absolute authority
ruled as Tsar, believed power from God
Strengthened monarchy
Weakened traditional institutions
Used fear and violence
mass executions, land confiscation
Early Russian absolutism
strong control but chaotic and brutal
Peter the Great (1682 -1725)
Modernized Russia by adopting Western technology, reorganizing the military, and building St. Petersburg as a "window to the West."
Absolutism in the East
3 Big Things to Westernize
Russian Academy of Sciences
St.Petersburg
Beard Tax
Catherine the Great (1682 - 1725)
Expanded Russian territory, promoted Enlightenment ideas, and modernized the administration
Established an educational reform, championed the arts, and extended Russia's borders in the largest territorial gain since Ivan the Terrible
Austria
Habsburgs (e.g., Maria Theresa)
Centralized control over a diverse empire with many ethnic groups
Strengthened bureaucracy and military
Limited power of regional nobles
Maintained strong Catholic identity
Prussia
Frederick William I & Frederick the Great
Built a highly militarized and efficient state
Reduced power of nobles (Junkers) by incorporating them into military
Frederick the Great practiced enlightened absolutism
modernized government but kept absolute control
Constitutional States
Exception to Absolutism in Europe
Great Britain: Developed constitutional monarchy with the Glorious Revolution ensuring parliamentary sovereignty
Glorious Revolution(1688)
King(Charles I) asked Parliament to fund to invade Scotland and Parliament negated it
Parliaments v. Royalties
English Bill of Rights(1689): Ends the war(William of Orange and Mary II) and balances power in the state
The Netherlands
A commercial & maritime power with a decentralized political system emphasizing trade & religious tolerance (oligarchy)
Early Capitalism
Commercial Revolution (16th-18th century)
A period of significant economic expansion in Europe, driven by increased trade, the rise of colonial empires, and innovative business practices
Shift away from mercantilism
Importance of Printed News
Enabled the spread of financial and economic information, fostering investment and trade
Shift from State and Monarchies to Private Individuals
Marked the rise of market-driven economies
Supply and Demand
Fundamental principle of capitalism
The Role of Printed Information for Investors
Created transparency, aiding decision-making.
Banks
Essential institutions for providing credit and facilitating trade
Joint-Stock Companies
Definition
A business entity in which shares of the company's stock can be bought and sold by shareholders
VOC
The Dutch East India Company
Netherlands Trade with Asia
EIC
English East India Company
English Trade with Asia
Muscovy Company
English Trade with Moscow c.1550
Jamestown Company
English trade with Virginia c.1600’s)
Putting-Out System
Cottage Industry
Business or manufacturing activity carried on in a person's home.
Fall of Guilds
Decline of medieval craft systems due to industrialization
Guilds which had dominated European towns & villages from the 1200s were beginning to be seen as inefficient, and anti-consumer
More interested in protecting the interests & profits of the guilds than in producing cheap products for the market
Why Rural Textile Production Was Profitable:
Low labor costs and flexibility made this system efficient
Profits and Ethics
Speculation and Bubbles
Early instances of economic crises caused by overvalued markets
Ex: Tulip Mania (Netherlands, 1630)
Prosperous middle class Dutch Citizens invest millions in the Tulip futures market, hoping an overpriced tulip bulb would bloom into a beautiful and rare flower
Seven Year’s War(1756-1763) (PERIOD 3!)
Origins(1754)
Territorial dispute between Great Britain & France in North America
Both incentivized Native Americans to join their side as allies
War Spreads to Europe(1756-1763)
Alliances
Great Britain
Powerful navy
London was financial center of Europe
Prussia
Highly trained army
Frederick the Great was military genius
Portugal
v.s.—————————————
France
Large economy
Large Army
Russia
Large army
Austria
Spain
Treaty Of Paris (1763)
European territories did not change but colonial power/territory did
Grants England Power- Dominates Eastern North America(Spain controls Western Half
Gain undisputed naval & financial power in Europe
Went on a heavy dept though having to serve through heavy taxes & fees
Contributed to British Empire weakening—>
Spain & French Colonial power is reduced
India
Involved with European companies
End of war pushes the French & Dutch out of South Asia
Solidifies British Imperial Dominanc
East India Companies - Dutch/British Rivalry In Asia
16th Century
Portuguese in the Indian Ocean Trade — "Carreira da Índia"
"Carreira da Índia" (Route to India):
A maritime trade route established by the Portuguese in the late 15th century to control spice trade between Europe and Asia.
Introduction
Essence
Vasco da Gama's voyage (1497–1499) around the Cape of Good Hope to India.
Occurance
While looking for new route from Portugal to Asia he sees astonishing port cities/city-states of East Asia and reports everything back to the kings
Goals:
Break Muslim and Venetian monopoly on Asian trade.
Establish a Portuguese-controlled trade empire by sea rather than land.
Tactics:
Used military force to seize strategic coastal cities (e.g., Goa in India, Malacca in Southeast Asia, and Hormuz in the Persian Gulf).
Built fortresses and trading posts (feitorias) to control trade choke points.
Enforced a cartaz system — required local merchants to buy permits from Portugal to trade.
Impact:
Created a maritime empire that dominated Indian Ocean trade routes in the 1500s.
Controlled the spice trade for a century
Africa
Kings send ships to Swaihili city-states in attempt to
Take anything of value
Force kings of city to pay taxes to Portuguese tax collectors
Gain controls over entire Indian Ocean Trade.
These city-states had never needed militaries before
They were not prepared
Portuguese wipe in attacking,conquering, killing, and stealing, sending shipload of gold back to Portugal
Sources of Evidence(Since all destroyed by Portuguese)
Archeological
Chinese porcelain vases/dishes can be found at East African beaches
Written first-hand sources
From Ibn Battuta, Vasco Da Gama, and other Europeans who wrote about these cities
Purchasing records
By African & Asian Governments & Companies via Indian Ocean Trade Network
Decline
Overextension
Small population/military — couldn't maintain control over such a vast area.
Fortresses and fleets were expensive to maintain
Resistance from Local Powers:
Ottoman Empire, Arab merchants, Indian states (like the Sultanate of Gujarat) resisted Portuguese dominance.
Frequent attacks on Portuguese fortresses.
Corruption and Poor Administration:
Officials often took bribes and prioritized personal profit over empire-building.
Decline in Portuguese discipline and effectiveness.
Competition from Other Europeans:
Dutch (VOC) and English (EIC) entered the Indian Ocean in the 1600s with better ships, stronger trading companies, and more resources.
17th-18th century
Dutch & English enter Indian Ocean commerce evicting the Portuguese
They competed fiercely for control over key trade routes, ports, and resources
The Dutch initially dominated the spice trade, while the British focused on expanding their influence in India
VOC
The Dutch East India Company, an early multinational corporation, known for trade dominance in Asia
The Pioneers of combined banking, joint stock companies, and aggressive overseas expansion
Trasnport spices to ports across Eurasia
Take control of small spice producing islands forcing people to sell only to the dutch
EIC
English East India Company that traded in the Indian Ocean region from 1600 to 1874
English Trade with Asia
Establish 3 major trading settlements(Bombay, Calcutta, Madras)
Overpower the Portuguese (maritime) but did not overpower Mughals
Both companies are granted charters by their government= could build armies, start war, print money, etc.
Establish trading post empires
Both being to work in with bulk goods rather than just elite goods
Progressively shift to situation where:
British rule India
Dutch control Indonesia
.
Etc.
Atlantic World Trade Networks
Network of communication, interaction, and exchange between Europe, Africa, The Americas
Triangle Trade
Visual
Goods Transported
From Europe to Africa
Textiles, weapons, alcohol, beads, and metal tools were traded to Africa.
From Africa to the Americas
Enslaved Africans were captured and sent to work in plantations in the Americas.
From the Americas to Europe:
Raw materials like sugar, tobacco, cotton, and other crops were sent to Europe in exchange for European goods.
Essence
flora, fauna, goods, diseases(measles smallpox), slaves, religion, language, politics
Fur Trade
Impact on Europe
Provides warmth in the colder regions of Europe
Enormous quantities go into Europe—> enhances the living standard
Very competitive industry
Caused environmental imbalances(population decline, etc.)
Women lose authority & prestige
America Natives:
They did the trapping and hunting
Europeans would pay them by trading goods
Were a cheap labor force
Benefitted from European Power Competition since it allowed them to set their own prices
Industry protected them from enslavement, extermination, displacement, etc.
Caused warfare/conflict/competition between different societies as economic stakes grew
They would many times get involved in European conflicts where they would have to take sides & die.
European diseases caused severe population decline
Smallpox, influenza, measles, bubonic plague
Little Ice Age (1300 to 1850)
Increases demand for furs—>increases prices—>provides economic opportunity for European Merchants to invest in fur-tearing activities at North America
Silver, Silk, and Manila (16th- 19th Century)
Manilla Galleons(1)-Flota de India(2)-Galeon de Manila(3)
Large Spanish trading ships that facilitated trade between Mexico (New Spain) and Manila (the Philippines)
The overall fleet that included the galleons traveling between Asia and the Americas.
The Manila Galeon Trade Route
Relationship Rooted In
Chinese heavy desire for Silver
New Spain/Spanish Desire for Silk
China
Silver
Early Ming’s attempt to revive/restablish paper currency supplemented by bronze failed due to rampant inflation and counterfeiting that made it unreliable.
Shortage of copper coins
cost to produce was higher than actual worth
Neighboring were not capable to mint these coins
Scarcity of coins
Loss of faith in paper money system
Unminted silver gains popularity as main form of payment for major transactions (Copper still used for low-key day to day transactions)
Single-Whip reform:
Allows for the consolidation of taxes into the universal payment of silver
Before, taxes were collected in different days with different types of commodities- this simplified the payment method + provided more stability to the Ming fiscal administration
Problem: China was not able to mine the amount of silver needed to fulfill this further escalation
Silk
Ming Dynasty policies allowed for further expansion/rapid growth of this commodity
Government would provide benefits for those who chose to grow silk
Ex: Relieved of paying land tax
Encouraged production by peasant class
Some were able to accumulate wealth
Soochow: Main center for the Chinese silk industry- big pupulation/ major urban center
New Spain
Silver
Mountains held the majority of the worlds silver
Mexico/South America produced 80% of the worlds silver
Potosi(1545):
Viceroyalty in Peru where most silver was mined
Population grows rapidly
Mercury Amalgamation Process
Method used to extract precious metals(gold, silver) from ores
(Chemical ability of mercury to form an amalgam with these metals, making extraction easier)
Very effective- Fueled global trade
Caused severe environmental damages: mercury poisoning of workers and local ecosystems
Vast amount of silver devaluates it in relation to gold
Silk
Raw silk was getting produced at dramatic scales in colonial Mexico—>
A series of laws enacted to free illegally enslaved Native Americans & prohibit encomenderos from using the slaves for their own personal services brings issues to system—>
Price skyrockets due to labor accessibility issues—>
Causes Chinese silks to be more favorable(ridiculously way cheaper-common person was able to afford it)—>
China becomes main source of silk since it could not compete with the Spanish American silk
Phillipines-Manila
Needed point of exchange where these goods could be traded
Spanish expansion in the East was limited (Treaty of Zaragoza- gave Portugal the right to most of Asia)
Spanish Colonization in the Philipines (1565–1898)
Essence
Converted most of the population to Catholicism
Introduced Spanish culture, law, and education
Tribute and forced labor from Filipinos
Frequent revolts by native Filipinos against Spanish rule.
Muslim areas in the south (Moro people) resisted Spanish control throughout the colonial period.
End
Filipino nationalist movements grew in the late 1800s (inspired by global revolutions).
Spanish-American War (1898) → Spain lost the Philippines to the United States.
P.S: U.S. victory also gained control of other sanish territories as well
Guam, Puerto Rico, and influence over Cuba.
Capital is moved to become Manila
Outstanding harbor/port
Strategic geographical location
Spanish trade goods with Asia
Slavery
Europeans would buy goods from Eurasia with the silver they got from the Americas and would then trade these goods for African Slaves from India
Not Limited to
Also traded porcelain, spices, and laquerware
3 major Disasters
Great Dying
90% of Native people die
Contact with European/African diseases
Little Ice Age (1300-1850)
Unusual cold temperatures
How native activity contributed:
Millions Die—>
Slash/Burn & other toxic agricultural practices are suspended—>Nature nurtures—>
Takes Carbon Dioxide/Greenhouse Gases away from the Atmosphere—>
Strengthens Global Cooling
General Crisis
Record breaking winters
Extreme Conditions
Damage agriculture leading to droughts, the ruining of crops, reduced harvests, widespread famines/epidemics/uprisisngs
Plantation Societies
Essence
Main Economic Activity in the Americas
Agricultural estates focused on large-scale production of cash crops (e.g., sugar, tobacco, cotton) using forced labor (slaves or indentured servants).
Location:
Primarily in the Americas (especially Caribbean, South America, and the southern U.S.), but also in parts of Asia and Africa.
Economic Structure:
Focused on the cultivation of crops for export.
Dependent on monoculture (growing one crop) to maximize profit.
Slave labor was crucial for economic success.
Labor Force:
Predominantly enslaved Africans in the Americas.
Indentured servants (mainly from Europe) were used in early years before the shift to slavery.
Harsh, grueling work conditions.
Social Hierarchy:
Plantation owners (often wealthy and powerful) at the top.
Overseers or managers who supervised labor.
Enslaved people at the bottom with no rights.
Impact on Society:
Deepened racial divisions and social inequality.
Created a racial caste system that dehumanized enslaved Africans.
Contributed to the development of racism and justification of slavery in society.
Economic Impact:
Major role in the development of global trade
especially the Atlantic Slave Trade.
Created wealth for European colonial powers
Left regions dependent on a single crop.
Decline of Plantation Societies:
End of the transatlantic slave trade in the 19th century.
Abolition movements and eventual abolition of slavery in many regions (e.g., U.S. in 1865).
Economic shift towards industrialization and diversification of agriculture.
Colonies of Sugar
Introduced to Mediterranean by Arabs
What the industry implicated
Required huge capital investment, substantial technology, mass consumer market, etc.
First modern industry that produced for an international and mass market
Produced almost exclusively for export
It was a:
medicine, spice, sweetener, preservative, and in sculptured forms as a decoration that indicated high status (by europe)
Portuguese
(1570–1670), Portuguese planters along the northeast coast of Brazil dominated the world market for sugar.
Then the British, French, and Dutch turned their Caribbean territories into highly productive sugar-producing colonies
The Plantations
Workers: the African captives transported across the Atlantic, some 80 percent or more, ended up in Brazil and the Caribbean
Difficulty + Danger + Demand= Encouraged Slave Labor
More males than females were imported from Africa into the sugar economies of the Americas
Women made up about half of the field gangs that did the heavy work of planting and harvesting sugarcane.
High death rate: perhaps 5 to 10 percent per year, which required plantation owners to constantly import more enslaved people.
Assimilation, Acculturation, & Syncretism
African religions Mixing In
1. Syncretism
African religions combined traditional African spirituality with Christianity, Catholicism, and Islam brought by Europeans and Arabs.
Enslaved Africans at the Americas used blend to create new religious practices that reflected: African roots+ experiences in slavery
2. Voudou (Vodun)
A syncretic religion that developed in Haiti, blending African religious traditions with Catholicism.
3. Santería
Originating in Cuba, Santería combines African Yoruba religious practices with Catholicism.
4. Candomblé
A Brazilian syncretic religion, combining African Yoruba and Bantu traditions with Catholicism.
Catholic Religion Mixing In:***
Our Lady of Guadalupe, a Catholic representation of the Virgin Mary, who had gained a reputation for producing rain.
Slave Trade System (1500-1806)
Basics
Stats:
Took ~12.5 million people from African Societies
Killed ~1.8 million during the crossing
Deposited ~10.7 million in the Americas
Life involved:
Enslavement, violence, brutality, forced capture. repeated sale, beatings, branding, rebellions, forced unpaid labor, broken up families, humans treated as property, etc.
Most slaves ended up in the Caribbean & Brazil where plantation agriculture was major
The slave trade created dependencies on European goods, undermining traditional economies
Impact on economy
Boom in American plantation economies = peak in slave trade
American crops like maize, cassava, and peanuts became staples, transforming diets and agricultural practices in Africa.
These crops supported population growth, but the increased population also fueled the transatlantic slave trade
Gender Impacts
Slave trade corrupted morally African societies
More Men were transported so labor demands on Women who remained increased
Men could mary many women. Since there was “lack” of enslaved women, powerful/rich people would have them to distinguish themselves
A few African women were able to take benefit from this and accumulate wealth and power
Signares: Women involved in these cross culture marriages that became wealthy
Demographic Impacts
Slave trade drained populations in Africa
Slowed Africas growth at a time were other regions were significantly advancing demographically
High demand of people caused social disruption, economic stagnation, no major technological/agricultural breakthroughs
The exchange brought new crops which improved diets, increased food security, and supported population growth but it led to greater demand for labor, fueling the transatlantic slave trade and further disrupting traditional African societies.
Entire villages and regions lost large numbers of people due to the constant capture and sale of enslaved individuals
Families were torn apart, and societies lost key members(leaders, artisans,warriors)
Causes for there to be more men than women
Kingdom of Dahomey
Located in modern-day Benin
The kingdom was at the height of its power during the Atlantic slave trade in the 18th and 19th centuries.
Captured enslaved people through raids and wars, selling them to European traders in exchange for goods like firearms and textiles. The slave trade became a major source of revenue, fueling Dahomey's military expansion and economic growth
Significantly participated in the transatlantic slave trade during the 18th and 19th century
Sought to control African slave trade in their own interest and to take advantage of new commercial opportunities
Established a royal palace housing thousands of women
A unique in its integration of women into military, political, and ceremonial life, highlighting a complex and highly structured society where women could wield considerable power and influence.
The Middle Passage(Triangle Trade)
The voyage where millions of Africans were taken from Africa to the Americas.
Enslaved people were packed tightly on ships, often in chains, without enough food or clean water
Many died from disease, starvation, abuse, or even by trying to escape.
Inland Pre-Existing Slavery System
Slavery industry in Africa had already long existed before it got revolutionized into what became known as the trans-saharan trade
Differences in culture, groups, and overall disunion of African communities led one community to enslave the other
No sense of “African identity”
Africans would sell to Europeans African War Prisoners/Criminals/Rivals/etc.
Origins:
Black Sea Salvic people used to supply Europe with enslaved people—>
Ottomans Take Over Constantinople→ Slave supply cut off—>
Portugal is exploring West African Coast—> Realizes slavery is a major already existing system—>Link to new supply of slaves—>
Pope allows kings to pull through with this since Africans were not Christian—>
Over time racism gets tied into slavery
Africans suited all the conditions: Skilled Farmers, had some immunity to Tropical Climate and European diseases, not Christian, close at hand, readily available in substantial numbers
Forms of Revolt
Maroon Societies:
Slaves would flee to these to remote regions in the Caribbean & south America
At the mountains, slaves would create communities
Largest: Palmares in Brazil (10,000 People)
Suriname: Dutch Country
Notable site of resistance and revolt against slavery
Had maroon communities and direct rebellion
Sainte Domingue(Haiti)
Successful slave revolt
Slavery In Different Regions
Indian Ocean:
Enslaved Africans would assimilate to societies
Slave Status was Inherited
Islamic World:***********
Preferred Women
Mostly domestic work
Some acquired military/political status
Transatlantic
Immense slavery system
Economy depended on it
Preferred Men
Slave Status was Inherited
Little opportunity to escape to freedom
Slavery completely associated with blackness
Plantation Agriculture
African Society
São Jorge da Mina
Portuguese fort and trading post in West Africa
Modern day Ghana
Trade in gold, slaves, and other goods in West Africa.
It became a central hub for slave trading
Kingdom of Kongo
A centralized African state with a strong hierarchical structure
Influence of Portuguese traders introduced new social dynamics, especially due to the slave trade, which disrupted traditional social orders and increased class inequalities
(Portuguese)African-European diplomacy:
Kingdom of Kongo became a client state of Portugal through economic and military dependence
Relationship solidified by King Afonso I’s adoption of Christianity and Portuguese customs
He attempted to Christianize his kingdom while maintaining African traditions, creating a hybrid culture.
Introduced new trade opportunities(firearms and textiles)
These exchanges were deeply tied to the slave trade=economic dependence on human trafficking.
Portuguese eventually undermined the Kongo and achieve control by inciting conflict and exploiting the slave trade, destroying the Kongo’s centralized authority
Kingdom of Ndongo (Angola) & "Warrior" Queen Nazinga
A neighboring state to the Kongo
Faced Portuguese invasion but fiercely resisted colonization
Under Queen Nzinga
Allied with other African states and even the Dutch to challenge Portuguese dominance.
Portuguese missionaries tried to spread Christianity, but resistance movements often blended traditional beliefs with new religious influences.
Nzinga defied gender norms by taking on male roles in court ceremonies, dressing as a man, and leading her armies personally, symbolizing resistance to colonialism and patriarchy.
Omani Rule (17th–19th centuries)
Essence:
Rose to prominence after pushing the Portuguese out of the East African coast in the late 1600s.
Oman's power was based in Muscat, but it later expanded into East Africa,
Controlling key Swahili coast cities like Zanzibar, Mombasa, and Kilwa.
Economic Impact:
Transformed Zanzibar into the center of the East African slave and spice trade:
Major exports: cloves, ivory, and slaves.
Zanzibar became one of the world’s largest exporters of cloves.
Developed large clove plantations, often worked by enslaved Africans.
Continued long-distance trade with Arabia, India, and Persia using dhow ships.
Cultural & Religious Influence:
Strengthened Islamic culture along the Swahili coast:
Built mosques and Islamic schools (madrasas).
Promoted Arabic as a language of religion and trade.
Introduced more Arab customs into Swahili society, leading to further blending of Arab and African cultures.
Political Structure:
Ruled through Arab governors and local Swahili elites loyal to the Sultan.
Coastal cities paid tribute to the Omani Sultan.
Zanzibar emerged as the political and economic hub of Omani-controlled East Africa.
Decline of Omani Rule:
19th century: European colonial powers, especially the British, began increasing their influence.
1890: Zanzibar became a British protectorate, marking the end of effective Omani political control in East Africa.
Oman remained influential culturally and religiously, but no longer held political dominance.
Songhai Empire (West Africa)
Location
Centered along the Niger River (mainly Gao, Timbuktu, Jenne)
Part of the Sahel and western Sudan region
Expansion & Leadership
Reached peak under Sunni Ali and Askia Muhammad
Conquered major cities like Timbuktu and Jenne
Askia Muhammad:
Reformed the government (bureaucracy, governors)
Promoted Islamic law
Went on pilgrimage to Mecca, gained title of Caliph
Allied with Islamic scholars
Government & Military
Centralized imperial state with strong military and political control
Required horses for cavalry, enabling military expansion
Economy & Trade
Dominated trans-Saharan trade
Major goods: gold, salt, kola nuts, slaves
Controlled and taxed major trade routes
Trade wealth helped build a powerful empire
Religion & Culture
Islam promoted at the elite/urban level
Rural population retained traditional African beliefs
Timbuktu: center of Islamic learning (libraries, University of Sankore)
Slavery
Large-scale trans-Saharan slave trade
Many enslaved people sent to Islamic North Africa
Decline
Internal issues: political instability, rebellions, succession crises
1591: Defeated by Moroccan forces at the Battle of Tondibi
Moroccans used gunpowder weapons
Empire fragmented, lost regional dominance
Zanzibar
An island archipelago (islands)
Strategically located for trade in the Indian Ocean.
Rose to prominence in the 17th–19th centuries under Omani Arab rule after the Portuguese were pushed out.
Became a center of the East African slave and spice trade.
Major exports: cloves, ivory, and slaves.
Developed large clove plantations, worked by enslaved Africans.
Integrated deeply with Arab, Persian, and Indian cultures.
Strong Islamic presence, with mosques, madrasas, and Arabic as a religious and commercial language.
Governed by Omani-appointed governors and Swahili elites loyal to the Sultan of Oman.
Became the political and economic hub of Omani-controlled East Africa.
Decline came with growing European colonial interference — Zanzibar became a British protectorate in 1890, ending Omani political dominance.
Islam and Christianity in Early Modern Africa
Both Islam and Christianity were adapted to local African contexts.
Islam: Mostly found at West Africa
Christianity: Spread in Central and Southern Africa due to European missionaries.
Antonian Movement “Antonism” c.1700
An Afrocentric Christian movement in the Kongo that emphasized African interpretations of Christianity and challenged Portuguese religious dominance
“Afro-centric Christianity”
Fulani Sect of Islam
A conservative Islamic movement in West Africa that sought to purify Islam of local syncretic practices. Led to reforms and jihads in the region.
Promoted strict adherence to Islamic law and practices, influencing political structures in the region
European Exploration
General
Motives for Exploration
Originally
Find new routes to Asia
Throughout the exploration - The 3 Gs
GOLD
Seek wealth through trade, conquest, and exploitation of resources
Desire for spices, silk, and precious metals (especially gold and silver)
Establish new trade routes to Asia and the Americas
Colonize lands to grow profitable cash crops like sugar, tobacco, and cotton
GLORY
Pursuit of national pride and personal fame
Monarchs wanted power and prestige from global empires
Explorers wanted recognition, titles, and rewards
Competition between European powers (Spain, Portugal, England, France) pushed expansioN
GOD
Spread Christianity to indigenous populations
Missionary work often backed by the state or Church
Religious duty used to justify colonization and conquestConvert non-Christians and “save souls” as part of a divine mission
Sailing Innovations
The Compass
Direction
Created by the Chinese
Astrolabe
Position
Created by the Arabs
Lateen/Triangular Sail
Sailing in the Wind
Created by the Arabs
Caravel
Long Distance Journey’s
Created by the Portuguese
Rudder
Precise Steering/Sailing
Created in China
Geography
Western countries that were previously at a disadvantage in Afro-Eurasia Trade, now have a major advantage in colonization
Portuguese
West Africa
Prince Henry The Navigator (1394 -1460) encouraged his Captains to sail further down the coast of Africa with reward of Gold
Portuguese gradually set trading factories(warehouses) and first along the coast of West Africa
brought missionaries in attempt to gain converts
Encouraged local African Kingdoms to provide more slaves
With Gunpowder, alcohol, textiles
The Indian Ocean
(1497-1498) Vasco Da gama made the trip from Portugal, around Africa, and to India
Take over Monsoon Trade Routes
Tried to tax and regulate all trade in the Indian Ocean but failed
Volta do Mar
“Turn to the Sea”
Use of wind and sea currents to speed their journey overseas
Spanish
El orden en q fluyo su colonizacion
First the Caribbean:
Christopher Columbus (1492) discovered the islands.
Spanish established early settlements like Hispaniola (modern-day Haiti and the Dominican Republic).
Then the Incas and Aztecs:
The Spanish used European diseases (mainly smallpox) to devastate indigenous populations.
Conquistadors like Hernán Cortés (Aztec Empire) and Francisco Pizarro (Inca Empire) took advantage of weakened empires.
Colonial HQ: Sevilla, Spain
Sevilla was the main administrative center for Spanish colonization.
Laws and policies governing the colonies came directly from Spain through the Council of the Indies.
English
Essence:
Wanted to escape old European society, not recreate it
Different from Spanish- less rigid in terms of nobility, class hierarchy, and reliance on large rural estates.
More numerous than the Spanish- pursued settlement over empire-building
Driven by religious freedom, economic opportunity, and land ownership.
The 13 British Colonies (the 13th colonies)
name of the British colonies
Key Colony - Jamestown (1607)
First Permanent English Colony in North America
Joint stock company
Located in Virginia
Aimed to find wealth and establish a profitable colony
harsh conditions, disease, starvation, and poor relations with Native Americans
Tobacco cultivation
became the economic foundation, leading to the use of indentured servants and later slaves.
House of Burgesses (1619)
The first representative assembly in North America, setting the groundwork for future self-government.
Jamestown's success set the stage for the expansion of English colonization in North America.
Labor Systems
Plantations:
Wealthy elites grew cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo, later cotton, sugar) using slave labor.
Small Private Farms:
Small white landowners worked land with indentured servants or slaves, growing tobacco and corn for local use.
Social Structure & Racial Hierarchy
Racial Hierarchy:
Strict racial divide—enslaved Africans at the bottom, white settlers at the top; little racial mixing, no casta system.
Reds, Whites, and Blacks
Immigration:
English encouraged European immigration, diversifying the colonies with groups like Germans and Scots-Irish.
French
Immigration and Settlement
Limited immigration from France
The French didn’t encourage large numbers of settlers to come to their colonies,
especially compared to the English.
French explorers and fur trappers
Focused on fur trade and exploration,
Establishing settlements along the St. Lawrence River (Quebec, Montreal).
Relations with Native Americans:
French settlers were often more willing to intermarry with Native Americans compared to the English or Spanish.
Led to a closer relationship between the French and Native American tribes
especially in the fur trade.
.
Gun Powder Empires
3 Islamic World Empires
Gunpowder: Made by china, proliferated by Arabs, and mastered by Europeans
Ottoman Empire (1299–1922):
Anatolia
Expanded into the Balkans, the Middle East, and North Africa.
Sunni Islamic empire with a strong bureaucracy and military.
Safavid Empire (1501–1736):
Persia (modern Iran)
Shi'a Islam as the state religion.
Known for its rich culture, art, and architecture.
Mughal Empire (1526–1857):
Indian subcontinent.
Sunni rulers with a policy of relative religious tolerance toward Hindus.
The Ottomans
Empire
Essence
Turkic warrior groups that aggressively raided agricultural civilizations
Sultans
Combined the roles of a Turkic warrior prince, a Muslim caliph, and a conquering emperor
Responsibility and the prestige of protecting Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem
Economy
Dominated by trade
Silk Road, Mediterranean Routes
Trade Policies
Silk Road Control
Ottomans controlled key Silk Road trade routes between Asia and Europe after taking Constantinople (1453).
Used their position to tax goods passing through their territory.
Made eastern goods (spices, silk) more expensive for Europeans.
Taxation Policies
Imposed heavy taxes on merchants and caravans.
Trade tariffs were a major source of revenue for the empire.
Sometimes offered lower taxes to favored groups (like Christian merchants in certain cases) to encourage trade.
Impact
Increased European desire to find sea routes to Asia (helped trigger the Age of Exploration).
Ottoman cities like Istanbul, Aleppo, and Cairo became major trade hubs.
Boosted the empire’s wealth and power but also eventually led to European competition bypassing the Ottomans.
Timar
A land grant given by the sultans of the Ottoman Empire to individuals in exchange for military service
Tax farming was practices as well
Religion
Sunni Muslims
Christians were allowed to practice their faiths as long as they paid the Jizya(tax) on non-muslims
Dhimmi-
a non-Muslim individual, typically living in an Islamic state, who is granted a protected status under Islamic law
Millet
an autonomous religious community, primarily composed of non-Muslims, that had the authority to govern its own internal affairs, including legal disputes and taxes
Christians welcomed Islam- lighter taxes, less oppression, better women’s rights (property), a threat to Christendom
High religious tolerance
European mercnats ignored Papal banned and happily selled fire arms to Turks
Major Expansion
Africa
Region: North Africa
Especially along the Mediterranean coast
Relied on local rulers under Ottoman oversight
Time
16th Century
Especially during Suleiman’s rule
Key Areas
Egypt (1517)
Defeated the Mamluk Sultanate.
Egypt became a major Ottoman province.
Sudan
Egypt’s conquest extended Ottoman influence into northern Sudan.
Libya, Tunisia, Algeria:
Took control of coastal cities.
Faced resistance from local tribes and Spanish forces.
Used alliances with pirate fleets (like the Barbary Corsairs) to control the Mediterranean.
Purpose of Expansion
Secure trade routes.
Defend against European powers (especially Spain and Portugal)
Control pilgrimage routes to Mecca and Medina.
Gender
When Empire converts to Islam, women loose many nomadic rights they previously had
But are able to retain some of their previous social power from pastoral societies and had more freedoms than in other parts of the Muslim world
Inherit property, could not be forced into marriage, concubines in the harem could gain significant power
Sometimes led to internal power struggles
“Sultanate of Women”
Loyalty
Devshrime
Established to create a caste/class that was loyal to the sultan alone
Fueled by Steppe Diplomacy
Treachery, opportunism, and betrayal customs of nomadic Turkish Trides threatened power of Sultan
Intellecuals= became janissaries
Physical Strength=Soilders
Eventually gained too much power over time, becoming a political force rather than solely a military one. Eventually, challenged sultans' authority, often rebelling when reforms threatened their privileges, contributing to military and political instability.
Politics/Social Structure
Government
Based on Sharia law code
Supplemented by Royal Edicts
Government Officials & Religious Scholars interpret/apply law
Had a Strong bureaucracy and military
Bureaucracy: Supervised government
Military: kept peace
Social Pyramid
Men of the Sword/Men of the Pen
Ghazi
Men of Negotiation
Merchants
Men on Husbandry
Peasants
Tend animals/agriculture
Origins (1299)
Osman I and his followers(Ghazi’s) expand(1 their empire West through/in Aanatolia(Turkey)
South=Muslims territory❌
West= Christian Territory✅
Originated from nomadic Turkic groups but evolved into a settled and centralized empire over time
Rise of Empire to peak starts with the fall of the Byzantine Empire & Constantinople
Jihad used to justify military campaigns and territorial expansion under the banner of Islam
Start of Decline
(1683)Vienna Siege:
Ottomans laid a siege to Vienna (The Habsburg capital) and failed
Marked the end of Ottoman expansion into Europe, reversing their territorial advances
Defeat signaled the beginning of European military superiority over the Ottomans
Accelerated the empire's economic and political decline-struggled to keep up with Europe’s modernization.
After Suleiman, Sultans became less involved and more dependent on ruling classes for his power, europe became more powerful, Ottomas fall behind in tech
2 major Sultans
Sultan Mehemed II The Conqueror
Ottoman
1453: Conquered Constantinople and the Byzantine Empire- 57-day siege, renamed it ‘Istanbul’
Significant use of gunpowder in the form of huge cannons, also cut off Bosphorus strait to cut down their resources
Acquired Mecca, Medina, and Jerusalem
Sultan Suleiman The Magnificent
Rhode Conquest gave him merited title
Reformed laws, earning the title "Lawgiver."
Su ley man
Strengthened the navy and economy.
Supported arts, architecture, and culture.
Doubled the size of the Empire
Expanded the empire into Europe, the Middle East, and North Africa
Created legal codes than lived long
Built landmarks like the Süleymaniye Mosque in Istanbul
Sinan Pasha- Famous remarkable architect that built it
Perfected the dome
Sultanante of Women
Essence
A period when imperial women (especially mothers and wives of sultans) held significant political power
almost as if they were sulatns- hence the name they were given “Sultana”
They influenced government decisions, court politics, and even foreign affairs.
(Ex:) Roxelana
Wife of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent; broke tradition by marrying the sultan and advising him heavily.
How
Through their sons (the future sultans).
By controlling the Harem (the women's court inside the palace).
Governed when their sons were too young to rule.
Why
Many sultans were young, inexperienced, or weak, so mothers or wives stepped in to guide or dominate politics
Safavid Empire
Essence
Turkik Warrior/Muslim Caliph Nation
Religion
Shia Islam
Only Gunpowder Empire with this Religion
Causes Political/Religious divide in Dar-Al-Islam
Creates military conflicts
Tensions with Ottoman Sunnis but could not compete
Location
Persia(Modern day Iran)
Strategic central location in Eurasia
Benefit from Trade
Shah Ismail
Founder, from Sufi religious order
Absolute monarch, claimed descent from Muhammad
Built a strong, centralized empire with control over trade and military
Patronized art and culture, such as Persian carpets and architecture
Silk: Important!
Expanded the empire's territory, including areas in India and Central Asia
Decline
Weak leadership- later rulers were incompetent/puppet kings.
Internal conflict- Power struggles and court corruption weakened the government.
Religious tensions grew between Sunni and Shi’a groups.
Economic decline- Trade routes shifted (due to European sea trade), hurting Silk Road-based economy.
Heavy taxes burdened farmers and merchants.
Military weakness- Army declined in quality and power, Relied too much on tribal forces that were disloyal.
External invasions- by Afghan tribes/ ottomans, and russians also seized territory.
The Mughal Empire
Religion
Islamic(Sunni Islam) & Hindu Cultural Interaction
Minority: Muslim (20% of Pop)
Politics
Brutal Conquest
Zamindars
Collected taxes for the empire
Kept a little for themselves
Extend Imperial Authority
Large Local Land Owners
Powerful Rulers of the Empire
Akbar The Great(1556-16050
Strategically managed large Hindu Populations
Does not require Hindus to change religion
Brought Rajput(Hindu) chiefs into service of the empire
Incorporates substantial # of Hindus to Political-Military Elite
Married several Hindu-Rajputs’ princesses but didnt force convertion
Nur Jahan
widely regarded as the power behind the throne of her husband, Emperor Jahangir
Deliberately restraining the more militantly Islamic ulama (religious scholars)
Supported building of Hindu temples, mosques, palaces, etc.
Softened Hindu restrictions on women
encouraging the remarriage of widows and discouraging child marriages and sati
Organization of bureaucracy + mansabdar
“Cult of the monarch”
Persona created by Akbar to present himself as a semi-divine personage whom it was a religious duty to obey
Removed the Jizya
Created the Din-i-ilahi
Syncretic “religion” that was fusion of Hinduism & Islam & incorporated elements of Christianity & Buddhism
Goal to aid in centralizing his rule over India
Created a special house of worship for intellectual discussion with representatives of various religions
Secured Gujarat(India State) for Muslims
Babur
Founded the Mughal Empire in India in 1526.
Conquered Delhi and much of northern India.
Introduced gunpowder and artillery in Indian warfare
Shah Jahan
Oversaw the Golden Age of Mughal architecture.
Built the Taj Mahal as a symbol of love.
Expanded imperial territory and wealth.
Aurangzeb
Expanded the Mughal Empire to its largest size.
Imposed strict Islamic rule and reintroduced taxes on non-Muslims.
Persecution of Hindus and Sikhs
Faced rebellions and weakened the empire’s stability.
Decline
Corruption and weak leadership in later rulers.
Overextension of the empire's territorial control
Economic struggles caused by heavy taxes and rebellions
Growing influence of regional powers like the Marathas and British East India Company
.
Tradition & Change in East Asia
East Asia
The Ming Dynasty (1368–1644)
Meaning
Ming=Brilliant
Restauration of “Chinese Empire” Post Mongols
Solidify the governmnet/economy after the Yuan
Bring back traditional Chinese Practices
Yuan had ignored Chinese traditions politically, culturally, and economically “=Mongols”)
With Ming encouragement, people dropped Mongol names & dress that many adopted during the Yuan
Respect for Chinese Traditions= facilitated restoring institutions thatMongols had ignored/supressed
Great Wall
Fortification to protect China against Northern threats
Previous attempts resulted in ruins, Ming did it!
Expanded and completed the wall
Built the Forbidden City
Beijing
Served to impress/reflect legitimacy of the rule
The imperial palace and the center of power during the Ming and Qing
Home for Chinese emperors and their families
Political, cultural, and ceremonial center of the empire
Silk/Tea Trade
Silver exchange
Soochow/Shanghai to Manila
Galeon de Manila
Rulers/Emperors
Hongwu
Founder of Ming
Kicks out Mongols & builds tightly centralized state
Yongle(PERIOD 1)
(1405-1433)Launched series of expensive naval expeditions to show Chinese magnificence all the way to East India but his successors discontinued this due to how expensive it was.Wanted to Spread Chinese influence/precense across India Ocean.
Led by eunuch admiral Zheng He
Treasure Junks:
Huge(the largest) Chinese ships used for maritime trade and exploration during the Ming Dynasty(1368–1644). Known for their size, and ability to carry large cargoes, including goods and treasures.
His Voyages:
Overview: He led seven major voyages from 1405 to 1433 to establish trade routes, assert Chinese dominance, and collect tribute from foreign lands.
End of Voyages: They were extremely expensive and many Confucian Scholars claimed it was a waste of resources and viewed them as useless.
Political/Military Effects: Strengthened China's maritime presence and influence in Southeast Asia and beyond. Established China’s Wealth with goods they traded locally and impressive 300 vessel fleets.
Placed Capital in Beijing
Keep closer watch on Mongols/Nomaidc people up North
Ming Dynatis capital had been Naijhing but he returned it to Beijing(it was also Beiijing during the Yuan)
Technology
Remarkable advancements in technology, particularly in the realms of ceramics, textiles, and agricultural tools. The introduction of foreign technologies, especially from Europe, led to improvements but was somewhat limited in scope.
Isolationist Policies
Reasons for Isolation
Cost: Maritime expeditions were expensive and strained resources.
Confucian Ideals: Scholar-officials viewed merchants and foreign contact as corrupting. Agriculture was valued over trade.
Self-Sufficiency: Ming China saw itself as the “Middle Kingdom” — culturally and economically superior, needing little from outsiders.
Fear of Foreign Influence: Desire to protect Chinese culture and maintain control over internal affairs.
Policies Implemented
Official ban on maritime trade (Haijin laws):
Restricted private overseas trade.
Foreign trade only allowed through limited, state-controlled ports (like Canton).
Destruction of Fleet: Shipyards dismantled; blueprints of Zheng He’s treasure ships destroyed.
Tributary System Continued: Some contact allowed through tribute missions, but China did not seek active engagement.
Consequences of Isolation
Short-term stability, cultural preservation, and border control.
Long-term setbacks:
Missed out on global maritime dominance as European powers expanded.
Fell behind in technological and military advancements.
Limited access to new goods and ideas, weakening innovation.
Decline of Ming: Isolation could not prevent internal corruption, peasant revolts, and external invasion (Manchu conquest → Qing Dynasty).
Jesuits
Goal: Win Converts to Christiansm
Christianity had already been established at China but with fall of Yuan/ epidemics, it dissapeared and Roman catholic missionaries had to start from scratch(sole purpose was to spread faith)
Mateo Ricci
At Macau, learn about language and confucianism
Piquied Chinese curiosity with European science/technology/mechanical devices
Gains way to Beijing where Chimming clockscpature emperors attention(with hope of getting them to convert)
These mechanical clocks fascinate everyone, and later becomes the rage in elite societies, and what roch Chinese merchants would spend their money on
Portrayed Christianity as similar faith to Chinese cultural traditions
Argued doctorines of jesus & confucious were similar
Failed- Gain very little converts
Christianity’s exclusivity became a problem
Chinese were used to honoring Confucianism, Daosim, and Buddhism at the same time
End of Jesuits
Franciscan & Dominican orders tatle taled on Jesuits to the Pope, because they wanted to convert Chinese as well, that they were not following European standards exactly & were practicing some Chinese/Confucian practices that contradicted some catholic things.(Ex:veneration of ancestors-were doping this to blend with Chinese to make them more likely to accept them and possibly convert to christianism)
Pope forces jesuits to suppress these practices, and Kangxi decided to ban them
Effects
Did not get converts but
impacted culturally
informs both places about culture/technologies of the other
Decline
Pirates & Smugglers
Popularized/diffused through the east coast of China
Ming had ineffective coastal/naval defense
Incompetent imperial government
Takes 40 years to suppress pirates
Emeprors lived extravagantly in Forbidden City, receiving news about “outside world” from Eunuchs, Servants, and Administrators
Eunuchs political power and influence increases—> are able to create and live luxurious lives—>corruption & inefficiency spreads throughout government & weakens Ming State
Fall
Famine strickes—>gov too desorganized to solve issue—>
peasants eat grass roots & tree bark—>(1630) peasants organize revolts—> set momentum as Ming loose peoples loyalty—>
Manchu(nomads) forces up north invade—>(1644) rebel forces capture capitol beijing—>Manchu invaders ally to Ming army—>Crush rebels & recover Beijing—>Manchu does not restore Ming rule however—>manchu people move their own capitol to Beijing & displace the Ming dynasty
The Qing Dynasty(1644–1912) - The Manchus
Meaning
Qing="clear" or "pure"
Symbolize their legitimacy & Virtue
Reflecting their goal of restoring harmony and balance while incorporating Chinese Confucian ideals
Part of strategy to present themselves as rightful rulers of a unified China
Rule
After 40 years of campaigning against Ming loyalties, they consolidate dynasty
People’s distate for eunuchs/uninterested gov aid to gain support
Continue tradional policies restored by the Ming
Appoint their Manchus as top advisors- highest political posts
Mantained trade along established trade routes(Afro-Eurasia)
Receives crops from Columbian exchange—>Population increases dramatically—>Culture flourishes(Buddhism & Neo-Confucianism)
Organize powerful military force
Technology
Initially progressive, but late Qing dynasty, China fell behind in technological innovation
Fostered dependency on foreign goods—> led to social and economic challenges in responding to the modernizing world around them.
Pre
Manhcus were raised with Chinese/Confucian rulings/principles, so they worked to preserve and promote the culture, but also were careful to preserve their own ethnic & cultural identity
Forbid
Intermarriage between Chinese & Manchus
Chinese to Travel to Manchuria
Chinese to learn manchus Language
Forced
Queue: Chinese men to shave in Manchu like style as sign of submission to dynasty
Continuities:
Kept the same government apparatus as the Ming
tightly centralized state, staffed by Confucian scholars
“Son of Heaven”
the emperors clothes and name are forbidden for anyone to use
Kowtow: 3:9
Civil Service Exam
Allowed opportunity for social class mobility
Emperor Lived in Forbiddne CIty with hundreds of Cocubines in his harem & thousand of eunuchs looking out for him
Sexism (Men>Women)
Foot Binding
Women were for marriage to continue male descent (encouraged suicide for widows)
Woemn could not divorce their husbands, but husbands could
Patriarchal family/ Fialial Piety
Widow Arches
Neo-Confucianism
Economy
Agricultural production increases dramatically
Introduction of new crops- Columbian Exchange
Agricultural society+small fraction of land is suitable=Intensive agriculture that was largely productive
New crops allow use of unused soils before
Maize, sweet potatoes, Peanuts
Rapid population growth—>Global trade brings China enormous wealth———>encourages increased trade, manufacturing, and urban growth
Chinese entrepreneurs had access to large labor force with low costs
Diminishes need for technological innovation
Large economic expansion
America and Japan Silver Stimulate economy
Traded in Manila porcelain and silk for American silver
Traded in Batavia (Dutch) for silver and Indonesian spices
Trade Limitations
Qing government tried to end Maritime activity altogether after Yongle & Zeng He’s expensive expeditions
Closeley supervised foreign merchants
Portuguese could only operate at Macau
British could only operate at Guangzhou
With limitations, it became impossible to organize major commercial maritime trips and to build big & good ships
Military
Borrowed/adopted European canons & advanced fire arms that had originally come from China but was adopted/refined/improved by Europeans
Expanded Chinese territory to its greatest extent.
Rulers
Kangxi
Longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history.
Stabilized and expanded the Qing Empire, conquering Taiwan, Mongolia, and Tibet.
Promoted Confucian values and worked to win the loyalty of Han Chinese.
Encouraged science and culture, welcoming Jesuit missionaries for technological and scientific exchange.
His reign marked stability, prosperity, and effective governance
Qianlong
Grandson of Kangxi, his reign saw the Qing Empire at its height of power and territory.
Conquered Xinjiang and strengthened control over Tibet.
Patron of the arts, overseeing a golden age of literature, painting, and architecture.
Toward the end of his reign, the empire faced corruption, economic strain, and early signs of decline
The Last Shogunate: The Tokugawa (c.1600-1868)
Essence
The Tokugawa Ieyasu seizes power from warring Daimyos at the Battle of Sakhigahara (1600)
Sengoku ends- “Country at war with itself”
Constant war with the daimyio trying to seize control
Tokugawa Ieyasu
A prominent Japanese warrior and statesman
Known as the founder of the Tokugawa shogunate and the unifier of Japan during the 17th century.
Japan centralizes it’s government
Establishes New Shogunate- This period also known as Edo Period
Japan grows economically & culturally at the expense of most trade with the outside world
Edo= Tokyo’s old name-The capital
Practices/Movements
Emphasizes Confucianism and Chinese tradition in Japan
Adopted Confucian ideas of hierarchy, family loyalty, and governance during the Tokugawa period.
"Native Learning" Movement
Advocated returning to Japanese traditions, rejecting Chinese and Buddhist influences.
Extreme Xenophobia, Pro-Japan
Viewed foreign influence as corrupting; prioritized Japanese culture and identity.
Deep desire for Japanese pureness
Focused on Shinto ideals and the uniqueness of Japan, separating from outside traditions.
Sakoku- Country in Isolation:
Policy limiting foreign trade and contact, maintaining controlled relations with select nations like the Dutch
Foreign Relations, 1600s
Tokugawa Leyasu suspicious of European Colonist Super Powers
Especially the Spanish(Phillipines), and the Portuguese(Indian Ocean)
Portuguese introduce firearms to Daimyos to encourage conversion to Catholicism
Kirishitan-Japanese Christians
If a Daimyo converts, everyone under them converts as well
key target for expanding faith
Initially successful but created conflicts with Buddhists
After 1600, Tokugawa violently repressed Japanese Christians(Kirishitan) with some even being executed
Trade
Before 1630’s
Red Seal Ships
Japanese trading ships influenced by the design of Junks and Galleons
Japan traded in S.E Asia
Traded with China at Okinawa off the Japanese coast
Required Trading License from Shogun
After 1630’s
Tokugawa Shogunate issues a ban on trade with all foreign ships
Travel abroad by Japanese as well was punishable by death or banishment
Exceptions
Trade with VOC ships continued on island in the Port City of Nagazaki
Effects
Positive: Political Stability, Peace, Prosperity
Negative: Military & Industrial technology froze, Japanese became unable to defend themselves against Western demands(by the 1850’s)
Society
Because of the stability of the Tokugawa era in Japan, the population grew
Interal trade increases
Towns Grow
Growing mercant class(many of Rice)
Samurai
Wealthy mercnats & samurai are in conflict over wealth
With the end of the domestic civil war/conflict, Samurai have “less defined role in society”
Shogunate pays samurai a salary
Warriors become bureaucrats
Culture
Ukiyo- “Floating worlds” Entertainment houses in Japan
Kabuki: Japanese theater
Exxagerated poses, over-the-top acting, & performance style
Only Men could act, so they would play as Women
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