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what is the difference between sensation and perception?
sensation
the sense organs’ detection of external physical stimulus
transmission of information about this stimulus to the brain
perception
the processing, organization, and interpretation of sensory signals in the brain
result in an internal neural representation of the physical stimulus
how doo humans localize sound?
sound is funneled into outer ear
sounds located based on loudness and delay to ear
ex. if sound is coming from the left it will be louder and will be heard first by the left ear
since ears are located on sides of head sound shadow is created when sounds come from the sides but not the front or back
sound is also processed in both brain hemispheres for each ear
but since the opposite side of the brain does most of the processing more sound information from the left ear will be processed in the right brain hemisphere and vice versa
where is the auditory cortex located?
superior temporal gyrus
what is the Fourier analysis?
ability to distinguish between people’s voices, sound broken into component frequencies
what is prosody?
convey meaning in speech for intonation, emphasis, and rhythm
how do hearing aids work?
cochlear implants
place theory
perception of sound dependent on location of component frequency vibrations along basilar membrane
what is frequency?
peceptual experience: pitch
high frequench = high pitch
ex. high notes from a piccolo
low frequency = low pitch
low notes played by a tuba
frequency theory
whatever the pitch of a sound wave, nerve impulses of a corresponding frequency will be sent to the auditory nerve
only accounts for low-end frequencies
what areas are responsible for language in the brain?
language: generation and understanding of written, spoken and gestural communication
acquired through learning
prosody
convey meaning in speech for intonation, emphasis and rhythm
brain areas responsible for language
broca’s
wernicke’s
impairments
aphasia
dyslexia
impairment in reading
what is broca’s aphasia?
nonaffluent - pauses
trouble with finding words
articulation issues - instead of “write” says “rike”
agrammatic - trouble with adverbs, adjectives, conjunctions
no ifs, and, or buts
issues with reading and writing
what is wernicke’s aphasia?
trouble with understanding and producing language
fluent speech - no meaning (word salad)
does not realize there is a problem
what function does each part of the hair cell perform?
cochlea houses auditory receptors in organ of corti in inner ear
responsible for transduction into neural energy
connect to auditory nerve cells
contain cilia - embedded in tectorial membrane
two types: inner and outer
outer sharpen and amplify sound
inner are primary sensory receptors that project to the auditory nerve
how do humans communicate without spoken language?
nonverbal communication - sign language
humans developed sign language to compensate for loss of hearing
human infants exposed to sign language babble with hand signs
monkeys and apes can be trained in human sign language
what do we learn from patients suffering from brain damage?
how language is localized into structures
broca’s area
wernicke’s area
what is ventral and dorsal stream?
auditort cortex separates into two streams
dorsal stream
parietal lobe to frontal lobe
“where” the sound is
ventral stream
more temporal lobe
“what” the sound is
what are the parts of the ear?
outer ear
pinna
outer skin flap
protection, localization, amplification
auditory canal
protection, temperature control, resonance
tympanic membrane (eardrum)
seals off auditory canal
first area for sound waves to strike, vibrates in response to sound waves, transmits vibrations to middle ear
middle ear
separates inner and outer ears,
amplifies sound, act as lever to increase force, focus vibrations of large surface onto small surface
malleus (hammer)
vibrates on response to tympanic membrane
incus (anvil)
stapes (stirrup)
transmits vibration to oval window
air (outer ear and middle ear) - low impendance
fluid (inner ear) - high impendance
inner ear
cochlea
filled with fluid, moves when stapes pushes against oval window
how many receptors are in the human eye?
97 million photoreceptors
highly active cells compared to other cells in the body
what is the visible spectrum of light?
electromagnetic spectrum
includes a variety of energy forms
light is described by its wavelength
visible light ranges from 380 nm to 800nm
what is retinal disparity?
depth perception
visual motion perception
focus on retinal (binocular) disparity cues
difference in object location due to difference in perception between left and right eye
use extra-retinal signals from eye movements to gage depth
what affects our percepetion of color?
color is the observer’s visual experience, not an object characteristic
results from the color that bounces off an object to the eye
different experience for everyone
can train color perception acuity
color constancy
ability to perceive color as the same in different lighting
disorders associated with vision often come from X chromosome
disproportionally affect men
what are the theories of color vision?
trichromatic theory - Young and Helmholtz (1800s)
receptors for three colors: red, green, blue
color mixing of 3 colors creates all possible color combinations
no explanation for yellow
opponent process theory - Edward Hering (1878)
color perception depends on the receptors that make antagonistic responses to 3 pairs of colors
red on, green off
yellow on, blue off
black on, white off
this not only takes care of yellow, but also explains the phenomenon of complementary afterimages
color blindness
how do the theories of color vision work together?
3 types of color receptors
red, green and blue
connected in an opponent-process fashion in the ganglion cells
combining colors from different forms of lodopsin
instead of combining 2 receptors all receptors engaged at once
more like a circle than a line with all colors mixing
what is an agnosia?
agnosia
caused by impairments in visual processing
object agnosia
cannot identify objects
prosopagnosia
can’t identify familiar faces
often person has both prosopagnosia and object agnosia
what is synthesia?
excessive connection between areas (overbinding)
causes combination of normally unrelated sensory experiences (seeing sounds and hearing colors)
what is blind sight?
loss of vision can result for a variety of reasons
brain still processes information relayed from eyes even if a person can’t assess this information
how do we focus on objects?
accommodation
refraction is necessary to focus light rays and this is done by the lens
eyes must change shape to of lens to focus on objects
what is the fovea?
central point on the retina where cones are tightly packed
offers best color and detailed vision
what are the rods and cones?
rods
pigment is rhodopsin
low-light vision
not useful in highly lit situations
cones
pigment in iodopsin
different forms of iodopsin respond to different wavelengths of light for color vision
high-intensity light levels needed
mostly in fovea
what is the blind spot?
area on the retina where the optic nerve leaves the eye
no photoreceptors located here so no visual processing can occur
what part of the visual system is responsible for optical illusions?
optical illusions can cause visual confusion
afterimages affected by cones
often occur in the retina
the complex cell responds to lines and edges
can betricked into thinking the line continues if the changel is limited, cells in the retina not infallible
what are the parts of the eye?
cornea
transparent outer coat that protects the eye
pupil
muscle that changes size to regulate ligth intensity
iris
center of eye that allows light through
aqueous humor
fluid inside the eye
lens
focuses light on the retina
vitreous humor
opaque gel-like substance that maintains eye shape
retina
light-sensitive tissue at the back of the eye where rods and cones are concentrated
fovea
central focus on the retina where cones are located
optic nerve
transmits visual information to the brain through action potentials
blind spot
area where no photoreceptors are located
photoreceptors
cells in the retina that initially transduce light energy into neural energy
rods
120 million, light sensitive (not color), found in periphery of retina, low activation threshold
cones
6 million, are color sensitive, found mostly in fovea