Psychology 160 Exam 1 Terms

behavioral perspective

the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment

behavior modification

a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones

bioecological perspective

the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals

case study

study that involves extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals

classical conditioning

a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response

Cognitive development

development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior

Cognitive neuroscience approaches

approaches that examine cognitive development through the lens of brain processes

cognitive perspective

the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world

Cohort

a group of people born at around the same time in the same place

contextual perspective

the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds

continuous change

gradual development

correlational research

research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists

Critical period

a specific time during development when particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally

cross sectional research

research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time

dependent variable

the variable that researchers measure in a experiment

discontinuous change

development that occurs in stages

evolutionary perspective

the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance form our ancestors

experiment

process in which investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes

experimental research

research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors

field study

a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting

humanistic perspective

the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior

information processing approaches

models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use and store information

laboratory study

a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant

lifespan development

the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span

longitudinal research

research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age

maturation

the predetermined unfolding of genetic information

naturalistic observation

type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation

operant conditioning

form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences

personality development

development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person form another change over the life span

physical development

development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink and sleep

psychoanalytic theory

the theory proposed by Sigmund freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior

psychodynamic perspective

the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control

psychosexual development

according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular function and body part

psychosocial development

the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understanding of one another, as well as inner knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society

sample

the group of participants chosen for the experiment

scientific method

the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic orderly observation and the collection of data

sensitive period

a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences

sequential studies

research in which researches examine a number of different age groups over several points in time

social cognitive learning theory

learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model

social development

the way in which individuals interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life

sociocultural theory

the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture

survey research

type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic

theoretical research

research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge

theories

descriptions, explanations, and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, provide a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles

\-MUST BE FALSIFIABLE

id

pleasure

ego

reality

superego

morality

Erik Erikson

believed society and culture presents conflicts at particular stages of life, that if not resolved, cause mental health problems

Freud

Psychosexual; believed our personality developed through stages that we had to work through and face conflicts between biological drives and social expectations before moving onto the next stage

Scaffolding

we have people around us who is teaching us things; support structures that we have around us that help us achieve things

Brofenbrenner

bioecological systems; believed there are 5 different levels of context that are important to understand in order to know why people are the way they are

Micro System

Immediate surrounding; I have a influence on you and you have a influence on me

Ex. Difficult baby frustrates a parent, who will then treat it more roughly

Meso System

Connections between micro

Ex. Family; poor families may benefit more form a YMCA accessible than more wealthier families

Exo

social setting; social events or services that indirectly affect children

ex. a parent gets a promotion and puts some of the money aside to live in a better school district

Macro

cultural values or laws that indirectly affect children

ex. national or state laws on whether adolescents are treated like adults for criminal offenses

Chrono

events that take place over time

ex. birth of a sibling, changes in policies

Ethological approach

behaviors can be selected if they are adaptive

Darwin

natural selection

Konrad Lorenz

we have special periods that help us survive (imprinting, sensitive period)

Observer Bias

our own personal experiences and world view lead us to draw interpretations form what we are seeing the tmay or may not be true

observations

types of correlational study; only things that we can see directly

Strengths of observation

provides info

describes behavior

description can help you generate a theory that you can test

weakness of observations

valid, reliable interpretation

Can NOT confirm or disconfirm

Can NOT determine causality

Does little to explain or predict

Correlation

specific type of method to help us with predicting behavior

Strength of Correlations

Weak: 0.1-.03

Moderate: 0.4-0.6

Strong: 0.7-1.0

Positive Correlation

both are moving the same direction at the same time

Negative Correlation

two variables are going in the opposite directions

Strengths of Correlation

Helps determine if there is a relationship

Help us predict behavior

Weakness of Correlations

Cannot determine cause and effect

Some relationships exist just by change, random coincidence

Selection Bias

random selection, random assignment

Observer/Experimenter Expectancy

double blind, control/placebo group

Subject Expectancy

placebo effect, double blind, control group, baseline comparison

Longitudinal study

one big group of people you are following for a long period of time and you measure them repeatedly

ex. test 3-year old’s multiple times until they are 11

Strengths of Longitudinal Studies

Avoids between-subject differences

Weakness of Longitudinal Study

practice effects, selection bias, attrition

Attrition

people dropping out of a study

Cross Sectional

interested in how change happens over a period of time, take separate groups of people at different ages and study them

ex. Test 3, 4, 5 year old’s once

Strengths of Cross Sectional Studies

Efficient, no practice effects, no attrition

Weakness of Cross sectional studies

between subject differences, cohort effect, can’t see individual changes

Sequential Designs

Take separate groups of people and test them multiple times until they are certain age

ex. Test 3, 4, 5 year olds multiple times until 9, 10, 11

Genes

Molecules attach to genes to enhance or repress their expression

\-Don’t directly affect behavior

\-interact with environment to be expressed

Allele→Gene→DNA→Chromosome

Polygenic inheritance

many genes working together to produce complex characteristics (human behavior)

Identical twins

monozygotic; 1 fertilized egg

Fraternal Twins

dizygotic; 2 seperate eggs

Heritability estimate

a number that can range from 0-1 that describes how well variation in a given characteristic in a given population of people can be explained

→0= religion, language spoken, political preference \n →1= sickle cell disease \n →.6-.8=adult IQ scores; .3-.5 for child IQ scores (Change over time) \n →.6 in developing nations vs. .8 in more developed nations (change environment) \n →Most complex traits are in the middle

Inheritance

what passed down directly from parent to offspring

→Look at individual person

Sandra Scarr

First female full professor in psych at Yale University, also at UVA

Active

we gravitate towards are genetic predisposition

→Micheal Jordan had certain genetic features (big hands, tall), so he was more suited to certain kinds of environment than others, so he paid more attention to those enviornment’s

Passive

indirect

ex. due to a parents own interest they passively put their children in that environment (swimming)

Evocative

our temperament demands

ex WWII example about pregnant mothers being stressed

Chromosomal Disorders

Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s

Down syndrome

Cell division error produces extra on Chromosome 21; maternal age increases risk

→Characteristic visible features, intellectual disability

Klinefelter’s

Extra X chromosome (XXY); affects males

→Lower testosterone levels, reduced facial hair/muscle mass, produce little or no sperm

Inherited Genetic Disorders

Fragile X, Huntingtons

Fragile X

gene mutation on X chromosome turns off production of protein

→Large ears, forehead, intellectual disability

Huntingtons

genetic defect, inherited, fatal, onset usually not until 30s or 40s

→Progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain

→No cure

Prenatal Testing

Screening and Diagnostic

Types of screenings

ultrasound, parental blood analysis

Ultrasound

see pictures, can take measurements

parental blood analysis

risk for fetus or future children