Studied by 12 peoplebehavioral perspective
the approach suggesting that the keys to understanding development are observable behavior and outside stimuli in the environment
behavior modification
a formal technique for promoting the frequency of desirable behaviors and decreasing the incidence of unwanted ones
bioecological perspective
the perspective suggesting that different levels of the environment simultaneously influence individuals
case study
study that involves extensive, in-depth interviews with a particular individual or a small group of individuals
classical conditioning
a type of learning in which an organism responds in a particular way to a neutral stimulus that normally does not bring about that type of response
Cognitive development
development involving the ways that growth and change in intellectual capabilities influence a person’s behavior
Cognitive neuroscience approaches
approaches that examine cognitive development through the lens of brain processes
cognitive perspective
the approach that focuses on the processes that allow people to know, understand, and think about the world
Cohort
a group of people born at around the same time in the same place
contextual perspective
the theory that considers the relationship between individuals and their physical, cognitive, personality, and social worlds
continuous change
gradual development
correlational research
research that seeks to identify whether an association or relationship between two factors exists
Critical period
a specific time during development when particular event has its greatest consequences and the presence of certain kinds of environmental stimuli is necessary for development to proceed normally
cross sectional research
research in which people of different ages are compared at the same point in time
dependent variable
the variable that researchers measure in a experiment
discontinuous change
development that occurs in stages
evolutionary perspective
the theory that seeks to identify behavior that is a result of our genetic inheritance form our ancestors
experiment
process in which investigator, called an experimenter, devises two different experiences for participants and then studies and compares the outcomes
experimental research
research designed to discover causal relationships between various factors
field study
a research investigation carried out in a naturally occurring setting
humanistic perspective
the theory contending that people have a natural capacity to make decisions about their lives and control their behavior
information processing approaches
models that seek to identify the ways individuals take in, use and store information
laboratory study
a research investigation conducted in a controlled setting explicitly designed to hold events constant
lifespan development
the field of study that examines patterns of growth, change, stability in behavior that occur throughout the entire life span
longitudinal research
research in which the behavior of one or more participants in a study is measured as they age
maturation
the predetermined unfolding of genetic information
naturalistic observation
type of correlational study in which some naturally occurring behavior is observed without intervention in the situation
operant conditioning
form of learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened by its association with positive or negative consequences
personality development
development involving the ways that the enduring characteristics that differentiate one person form another change over the life span
physical development
development involving the body’s physical makeup, including the brain, nervous system, muscles, and senses, and the need for food, drink and sleep
psychoanalytic theory
the theory proposed by Sigmund freud that suggests that unconscious forces act to determine personality and behavior
psychodynamic perspective
the approach stating that behavior is motivated by inner forces, memories, and conflicts that are generally beyond people’s awareness and control
psychosexual development
according to Freud, a series of stages that children pass through in which pleasure, or gratification, focuses on a particular function and body part
psychosocial development
the approach that encompasses changes in our interactions with and understanding of one another, as well as inner knowledge and understanding of ourselves as members of society
sample
the group of participants chosen for the experiment
scientific method
the process of posing and answering questions using careful, controlled techniques that include systematic orderly observation and the collection of data
sensitive period
a point in development when organisms are particularly susceptible to certain kinds of stimuli in their environments, but the absence of those stimuli does not always produce irreversible consequences
sequential studies
research in which researches examine a number of different age groups over several points in time
social cognitive learning theory
learning by observing the behavior of another person, called a model
social development
the way in which individuals interactions with others and their social relationships grow, change, and remain stable over the course of life
sociocultural theory
the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture
survey research
type of study where a group of people chosen to represent some larger population are asked questions about their attitudes, behavior, or thinking on a given topic
theoretical research
research designed specifically to test some developmental explanation and expand scientific knowledge
theories
descriptions, explanations, and predictions concerning phenomena of interest, provide a framework for understanding the relationships among an organized set of facts or principles
-MUST BE FALSIFIABLE
id
pleasure
ego
reality
superego
morality
Erik Erikson
believed society and culture presents conflicts at particular stages of life, that if not resolved, cause mental health problems
Freud
Psychosexual; believed our personality developed through stages that we had to work through and face conflicts between biological drives and social expectations before moving onto the next stage
Scaffolding
we have people around us who is teaching us things; support structures that we have around us that help us achieve things
Brofenbrenner
bioecological systems; believed there are 5 different levels of context that are important to understand in order to know why people are the way they are
Micro System
Immediate surrounding; I have a influence on you and you have a influence on me
Ex. Difficult baby frustrates a parent, who will then treat it more roughly
Meso System
Connections between micro
Ex. Family; poor families may benefit more form a YMCA accessible than more wealthier families
Exo
social setting; social events or services that indirectly affect children
ex. a parent gets a promotion and puts some of the money aside to live in a better school district
Macro
cultural values or laws that indirectly affect children
ex. national or state laws on whether adolescents are treated like adults for criminal offenses
Chrono
events that take place over time
ex. birth of a sibling, changes in policies
Ethological approach
behaviors can be selected if they are adaptive
Darwin
natural selection
Konrad Lorenz
we have special periods that help us survive (imprinting, sensitive period)
Observer Bias
our own personal experiences and world view lead us to draw interpretations form what we are seeing the tmay or may not be true
observations
types of correlational study; only things that we can see directly
Strengths of observation
provides info
describes behavior
description can help you generate a theory that you can test
weakness of observations
valid, reliable interpretation
Can NOT confirm or disconfirm
Can NOT determine causality
Does little to explain or predict
Correlation
specific type of method to help us with predicting behavior
Strength of Correlations
Weak: 0.1-.03
Moderate: 0.4-0.6
Strong: 0.7-1.0
Positive Correlation
both are moving the same direction at the same time
Negative Correlation
two variables are going in the opposite directions
Strengths of Correlation
Helps determine if there is a relationship
Help us predict behavior
Weakness of Correlations
Cannot determine cause and effect
Some relationships exist just by change, random coincidence
Selection Bias
random selection, random assignment
Observer/Experimenter Expectancy
double blind, control/placebo group
Subject Expectancy
placebo effect, double blind, control group, baseline comparison
Longitudinal study
one big group of people you are following for a long period of time and you measure them repeatedly
ex. test 3-year old’s multiple times until they are 11
Strengths of Longitudinal Studies
Avoids between-subject differences
Weakness of Longitudinal Study
practice effects, selection bias, attrition
Attrition
people dropping out of a study
Cross Sectional
interested in how change happens over a period of time, take separate groups of people at different ages and study them
ex. Test 3, 4, 5 year old’s once
Strengths of Cross Sectional Studies
Efficient, no practice effects, no attrition
Weakness of Cross sectional studies
between subject differences, cohort effect, can’t see individual changes
Sequential Designs
Take separate groups of people and test them multiple times until they are certain age
ex. Test 3, 4, 5 year olds multiple times until 9, 10, 11
Genes
Molecules attach to genes to enhance or repress their expression
-Don’t directly affect behavior
-interact with environment to be expressed
Allele→Gene→DNA→Chromosome
Polygenic inheritance
many genes working together to produce complex characteristics (human behavior)
Identical twins
monozygotic; 1 fertilized egg
Fraternal Twins
dizygotic; 2 seperate eggs
Heritability estimate
a number that can range from 0-1 that describes how well variation in a given characteristic in a given population of people can be explained
→0= religion, language spoken, political preference \n →1= sickle cell disease \n →.6-.8=adult IQ scores; .3-.5 for child IQ scores (Change over time) \n →.6 in developing nations vs. .8 in more developed nations (change environment) \n →Most complex traits are in the middle
Inheritance
what passed down directly from parent to offspring
→Look at individual person
Sandra Scarr
First female full professor in psych at Yale University, also at UVA
Active
we gravitate towards are genetic predisposition
→Micheal Jordan had certain genetic features (big hands, tall), so he was more suited to certain kinds of environment than others, so he paid more attention to those enviornment’s
Passive
indirect
ex. due to a parents own interest they passively put their children in that environment (swimming)
Evocative
our temperament demands
ex WWII example about pregnant mothers being stressed
Chromosomal Disorders
Down syndrome, Klinefelter’s
Down syndrome
Cell division error produces extra on Chromosome 21; maternal age increases risk
→Characteristic visible features, intellectual disability
Klinefelter’s
Extra X chromosome (XXY); affects males
→Lower testosterone levels, reduced facial hair/muscle mass, produce little or no sperm
Inherited Genetic Disorders
Fragile X, Huntingtons
Fragile X
gene mutation on X chromosome turns off production of protein
→Large ears, forehead, intellectual disability
Huntingtons
genetic defect, inherited, fatal, onset usually not until 30s or 40s
→Progressive breakdown of nerve cells in the brain
→No cure
Prenatal Testing
Screening and Diagnostic
Types of screenings
ultrasound, parental blood analysis
Ultrasound
see pictures, can take measurements
parental blood analysis
risk for fetus or future children
Note
Flashcard